HomeMy WebLinkAboutFInal AppendixTomorrow's Habitat for the Wild and Rare: an Action Plan for Minnesota WildlifeSet of Species in Greatest Conservation NeedScientific NameCommon NameRationaleStateStatusFed.StatusMammalsCanis lupusGray WolfFederally Threatened, MN Special Concern.SPC THRCervus elaphusElkMN Special Concern.SPC NLCryptotis parvaLeast ShrewMN Special Concern.SPC NLFelis concolorMountain LionMN Special Concern.SPC NLLynx canadensisCanada lynxFederally Threatened.NL THRMicrotus chrotorrhinusRock VoleTracked in MN heritage database.NL NLMicrotus ochrogasterPrairie VoleMN Special Concern.SPC NLMicrotus pinetorumWoodland VoleMN Special Concern.SPC NLMustela nivalisLeast WeaselMN Special Concern.SPC NLMyotis septentrionalisNorthern MyotisMN Special Concern.SPC NLOnychomys leucogasterNorthern Grasshopper MouseTracked in MN heritage database.NL NLPerognathus flavescensPlains Pocket MouseMN Special Concern.SPC NLPhenacomys intermediusHeather VoleMN Special Concern.SPC NLPipistrellus subflavusEastern PipistrelleMN Special Concern.SPC NLReithrodontomys megalotis Western Harvest MouseTracked in MN heritage database.NL NLSorex fumeusSmoky ShrewMN Special Concern.SPC NLSpermophilus frankliniiFranklin's Ground SquirrelStewardship species - stable pop in MN, declining in region.NL NLSpermophilus richardsoniiRichardson's Ground SquirrelTracked in MN heritage database.NL NLSpilogale putoriusEastern Spotted SkunkMN Threatened.THR NLSynaptomys borealisNorthern Bog LemmingMN Special Concern.SPC NLTaxidea taxusAmerican BadgerDependent on rare and declining grassland habitat, population numbers are not fully known, protected in WI, IL, MI.NL NLThomomys talpoidesNorthern Pocket GopherMN Special Concern.SPC NLBirdsAccipiter gentilisNorthern GoshawkSuggested addition by several people on feedback teams. On USFS sensitive spp list - vulnerable habitat (large patches of mature forest), may be regionally declining, tracked by MN DNR Heritage.NL NLAechmophorus occidentalis Western GrebeSuggested addition by several people on feedback teams. Declining MN population, with only 4 nesting colonies. Declining habitat. Been several nesting failures. Tracked in M DNR Heritage database.NL NLAegolius funereusBoreal OwlSuggested addition by several people on feedback teams. Meets several criteria - declining habitat, rare and declining in MN, not adequately surveyed by breeding bird survey, tracked by MN DNR heritage.NL NLAmmodramus bairdiiBaird's SparrowMN Endangered.END NLAmmodramus henslowiiHenslow's SparrowMN Endangered.END NLAmmodramus leconteiiLe Conte's SparrowHighest Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 1) in the Boreal Hardwood Transition plan (BCR12).NL NLAmmodramus nelsoniNelson's Sharp-tailed SparrowMN Special Concern.SPC NLAmmodramus savannarumGrasshopper SparrowHigh Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 2) in several Bird Conservation Regions (BCRs).NL NLPage 1 of 9Appendix B. MN CWCS - Set of species in greatest conservation needTomorrow's Habitat for the Wild and Rare: an Action Plan for Minnesota WildlifeV04.06.2006
Scientific NameCommon NameRationaleStateStatusFed.StatusBirdsAnas acutaNorthern PintailAccording to DNR Waterfowl Committee chair: Continental population stable since 1985, but significant long-term decline dating to the 1950s; MN population low and declining since 1986.NL NLAnas rubripesAmerican Black DuckAccording to DNR Waterfowl Committee chair: Continental population declining, MN population low (<1,000) based on 1991-93 Black Duck Survey.NL NLAnthus spragueiiSprague's PipitMN Endangered.END NLArenaria interpresRuddy TurnstoneHigh Priority (4) in the Prairie Pothole (BCR11) Shorebird Plan.NL NLAsio flammeusShort-eared OwlMN Special Concern.SPC NLAythya affinisLesser ScaupAccording to DNR Waterfowl Committee chair: Continental population declining since 1985 and long-term (Lesser and Greater combined), MN population stable but survey poorly timed for breeding scaup.NL NLBartramia longicaudaUpland SandpiperHigh Priority (4) in all Bird Conservation Regions of Shorebird Plans.NL NLBotaurus lentiginosusAmerican BitternHigh priority in all Bird Conservation Regions of Waterbird plans.NL NLButeo lineatusRed-shouldered HawkMN Special Concern.SPC NLButeo swainsoniSwainson's HawkPartners in Flight Continental Watchlist.NL NLCalcarius ornatusChestnut-collared LongspurMN Endangered.END NLCalidris alpinaDunlinHigh Priority (4) in the Prairie Pothole (BCR11) Shorebird Plan.NL NLCalidris fuscicollisWhite-rumped SandpiperHigh Priority (4) in the Prairie Pothole (BCR11) Shorebird Plan.NL NLCalidris pusillaSemipalmated SandpiperHigh Priority (4) in the Prairie Pothole (BCR11) Shorebird Plan.NL NLCaprimulgus vociferusWhip-poor-willSuggested addition by several people on feedback teams. Not well monitored by breeding bird surveys. Declining populations, insectivore and aerial feeder - special resource needs. Id'd on USFWS reg. 3 concern list.NL NLCatharus fuscescensVeeryHighest Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 1) in the Boreal Hardwood Transition plan (BCR12).NL NLCharadrius melodusPiping PloverFederally Endangered in Great Lakes watershed, Federally Threatened elsewhere. MN Endangered.END ENDChlidonias nigerBlack TernHigh priority in all Bird Conservation Regions Waterbird plans.NL NLChordeiles minorCommon NighthawkSuggested addition by several people on feedback teams. Not well monitored by breeding bird surveys. Declining populations, insectivore and aerial feeder - special resource needs.NL NLCircus cyaneusNorthern HarrierHigh Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 2) in several Bird Conservation Regions (BCRs).NL NLCistothorus palustrisMarsh WrenHigh Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 2) in several Bird Conservation Regions (BCRs).NL NLCistothorus platensisSedge WrenHighest Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 1) in several Bird Conservation Regions (BCRs).NL NLCoccyzus erythropthalmusBlack-billed CuckooHighest Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 1) in several Bird Conservation Regions (BCRs).NL NLContopus cooperiOlive-sided FlycatcherPartners in Flight Continental Watchlist.NL NLContopus virensEastern Wood-peweeHigh Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 2A ) in the Boreal Hardwood Transition plan (BCR12). Also shows one of the most significant declines in the NRRI forest bird monitoring.NL NLCoturnicops noveboracensisYellow RailMN Special Concern, High priority in several BCRs of Waterbird Plans.SPC NLCygnus buccinatorTrumpeter SwanMN Threatened.THR NLDendroica caerulescensBlack-throated Blue WarblerHighest Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 1) in the Boreal Hardwood Transition plan (BCR12).NL NLDendroica castaneaBay-breasted WarblerPartners in Flight Continental Watchlist.NL NLDendroica ceruleaCerulean WarblerMN Special Concern.SPC NLDendroica tigrinaCape May WarblerHighest Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 1) in the Boreal Hardwood Transition plan (BCR12).NL NLDolichonyx oryzivorusBobolinkHighest Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 1) in several Bird Conservation Regions (BCRs).NL NLEmpidonax minimusLeast FlycatcherHigh Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 2A ) in the Boreal Hardwood Transition plan (BCR12).NL NLEmpidonax trailliiWillow FlycatcherPartners in Flight Continental Watchlist.NL NLPage 2 of 9Appendix B. MN CWCS - Set of species in greatest conservation needTomorrow's Habitat for the Wild and Rare: an Action Plan for Minnesota WildlifeV04.06.2006
Scientific NameCommon NameRationaleStateStatusFed.StatusBirdsEmpidonax virescensAcadian FlycatcherMN Special Concern.SPC NLEuphagus carolinusRusty BlackbirdPartners in Flight Continental Watchlist.NL NLFalcipennis canadensisSpruce GrouseSuggested addition by several people on feedback teams. Not well monitored by BBS, on USFS sensitive species list, vulnerable habitat, not much known about population trends, however.NL NLFalco peregrinusPeregrine FalconMN Threatened.THR NLGallinula chloropusCommon MoorhenMN Special Concern, Moderate concern in several BCRs of Waterbird Plans.SPC NLGavia immerCommon LoonHigh priority in several Bird Conservation Regions of Waterbird plans.NL NLHaliaeetus leucocephalusBald EagleFederally Threatened, MN Special Concern.SPC THRHylocichla mustelinaWood ThrushPartners in Flight Continental Watchlist.NL NLIxobrychus exilisLeast BitternModerate priority in all Bird Conservation Regions (BCRs) of Waterbird plan.NL NLLanius ludovicianusLoggerhead ShrikeMN Threatened.THR NLLarus pipixcanFranklin's GullMN Special Concern.SPC NLLimnodromus griseusShort-billed DowitcherHigh Priority (4) in several Bird Conservation Regions of Shorebird Plans.NL NLLimosa fedoaMarbled GodwitMN Special Concern, Priority 4 on all BCRs of Shorebird plans.SPC NLLimosa haemasticaHudsonian GodwitHigh Priority (4) in the Prairie Pothole (BCR11) Shorebird Plan.NL NLMelanerpes erythrocephalus Red-headed WoodpeckerPartners in Flight Continental Watchlist.NL NLMelospiza georgianaSwamp SparrowHigh Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 2A ) in the Prairie Hardwood Transition plan (BCR 23). Partners in Flight shows rangewide declines and also a continental stewardship species.NL NLNumenius phaeopusWhimbrelHigh Priority (4) in all Bird Conservation Regions of Shorebird Plans.NL NLNycticorax nycticoraxBlack-crowned Night-heronMed to high priority in Waterbird plans.NL NLOporornis agilisConnecticut WarblerHighest Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 1) in the Boreal Hardwood Transition plan (BCR12).NL NLPelecanus erythrorhynchosAmerican White PelicanMN Special Concern.SPC NLPhalaropus tricolorWilson's PhalaropeMN Threatened, High Priority (4) in all Bird Conservation Regions (BCRs) of Shorebird Plans.THR NLPheucticus ludovicianusRose-breasted GrosbeakHigh Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 2A ) in the Boreal Hardwood Transition plan (BCR12) and also significant regional declines indicated in NRRI Forest Bird monitoring.NL NLPicoides arcticusBlack-backed WoodpeckerHigh Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 2C ) in the Boreal Hardwood Transition plan (BCR12). Range more extensive in MN than N 3-toed woodpecker and also has high regional threats (habitat needs of large burned areas).NL NLPluvialis dominicaAmerican Golden-ploverHigh Priority (4) in the Prairie Pothole (BCR11) Shorebird Plan.NL NLPodiceps auritusHorned GrebeMN Threatened. Moderate concern in several Bird Conservation Regions (BCRs) of Waterbird Plans.THR NLPodiceps grisegenaRed-necked GrebeHigh and medium priority in Waterbird Plans, uncommon, wetland habitat declining. Threatened in WI.NL NLPodiceps nigricollisEared GrebeModerate concern in the Prairie Pothole (BCR 11) Waterbird plan.NL NLPoecile hudsonicaBoreal ChickadeeSuggested addition by feedback team. Sharp continental population decline (PIF=5), threatened habitat.NL NLProtonotaria citreaProthonotary WarblerPartners in Flight Continental Watchlist.NL NLRallus elegansKing RailMN Endangered.END NLRallus limicolaVirginia RailModerate concern in the Prairie Pothole (BCR 11) Waterbird plan.NL NLRecurvirostra americanaAmerican AvocetHigh Priority (4) in the Prairie Pothole (BCR11) Shorebird Plan.NL NLScolopax minorAmerican WoodcockHigh Priority (4) in all Bird Conservation Regions of Shorebird Plans.NLNLSeiurus aurocapillusOvenbirdSuggested addition by feedback team.While does not meet PIF priority (2B), the NRRI Forest Bird monitoring shows highly sig. regional declines. Also vulnerable habitat (forest interior).NL NLPage 3 of 9Appendix B. MN CWCS - Set of species in greatest conservation needTomorrow's Habitat for the Wild and Rare: an Action Plan for Minnesota WildlifeV04.06.2006
Scientific NameCommon NameRationaleStateStatusFed.StatusBirdsSeiurus motacillaLouisiana WaterthrushMN Special Concern.SPC NLSpeotyto cuniculariaBurrowing OwlMN Endangered.END NLSphyrapicus variusYellow-bellied SapsuckerHigh Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 2A ) in the Boreal Hardwood Transition plan (BCR12). Also significant regional declines in NRRI Forest Brid Monitoring.NL NLSpiza americanaDickcisselPartners in Flight Continental Watchlist.NL NLSpizella pusillaField SparrowHighest Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 1) in several Bird Conservation Regions (BCRs). Significant population declines.NL NLStelgidopteryx serripennisNorthern Rough-winged SwallowHigh Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 2) in several Bird Conservation Regions (BCRs).NL NLSterna forsteriForster's TernMN Special Concern.SPC NLSterna hirundoCommon TernMN Threatened, High priority in all Bird Conservation Regions (BCRs) of Waterbird plans.THR NLSturnella magnaEastern MeadowlarkId'd on USFWS reg. 3 concern list. Suggested addition. Precipitous continental population decline, habitat inperiled.NL NLToxostoma rufumBrown ThrasherHighest Partners in Flight Priority (PIF 2A) in several Bird Conservation Regions (BCRs).NL NLTringa melanoleucaGreater YellowlegsHigh Priority (4) in several Bird Conservation Regions of Shorebird Plans.NL NLTroglodytes troglodytesWinter WrenSuggested addition by feedback team. Highly significant population declines in NRRI Forest Bird Monitoring.NL NLTryngites subruficollisBuff-breasted SandpiperHigh priority (4) in all Bird Conservation Regions of Shorebird Plans.NL NLTympanuchus cupidoGreater Prairie-chickenMN Special Concern.SPC NLTympanuchus phasianellusSharp-tailed GrousePopulations well below the range of natural variation in Minnesota. Historically was the dominant prairie Galliform.NL NLVermivora chrysopteraGolden-winged WarblerPartners in Flight Continental Watchlist.NL NLVermivora pinusBlue-winged WarblerPartners in Flight Continental Watchlist.NL NLVireo belliiBell's VireoPartners in Flight Continental Watchlist, Tracked in MN heritage database.NL NLWilsonia canadensisCanada WarblerPartners in Flight Continental Watchlist.NL NLWilsonia citrinaHooded WarblerMN Special Concern.SPC NLZonotrichia albicollisWhite-throated SparrowSuggested addition. Highly significant regional population declines in NRRI Forest Bird Monitoring.NL NLReptilesApalone muticaSmooth SoftshellMN Special Concern.SPC NLChelydra serpentinaCommon Snapping TurtleMN Special Concern.SPC NLClemmys insculptaWood TurtleMN Threatened.THR NLCnemidophorus sexlineatus Six-lined RacerunnerRestricted to bluff prairie habitats and are uncommon even in appropriate habitats.NL NLColuber constrictorEastern RacerMN Special Concern.SPC NLCrotalus horridusTimber RattlesnakeMN Threatened.THR NLElaphe obsoletaEastern Rat SnakeMN Special Concern.SPC NLElaphe vulpinaEastern Fox SnakeTracked in MN heritage database.NL NLEmydoidea blandingiiBlanding's TurtleMN Threatened.THR NLEumeces fasciatusFive-lined SkinkMN Special Concern.SPC NLHeterodon nasicusWestern Hognose SnakeMN Special Concern.SPC NLHeterodon platirhinosEastern Hognose SnakeTracked in MN heritage database.NL NLLampropeltis triangulumMilk SnakeTracked in MN heritage database - vulnerable habitat - rock outcrops and hibernacula.NL NLLiochlorophis vernalisSmooth Green SnakeSuggested by herp subgroup, declines noted in adj. States, MN population and distribution info lacking.NL NLPituophis cateniferGopher SnakeMN Special Concern.SPC NLPage 4 of 9Appendix B. MN CWCS - Set of species in greatest conservation needTomorrow's Habitat for the Wild and Rare: an Action Plan for Minnesota WildlifeV04.06.2006
Scientific NameCommon NameRationaleStateStatusFed.StatusReptilesSistrurus catenatusEastern MassasaugaCandidate Federal ESA, MN Endangered.END CANDTropidoclonion lineatumLined SnakeMN Special Concern.SPC NLAmphibiansAcris crepitansNorthern Cricket FrogMN Endangered.END NLAmbystoma maculatumSpotted SalamanderTracked in MN heritage database.NL NLHemidactylium scutatumFour-toed SalamanderMN Special Concern.SPC NLNecturus maculosusCommon MudpuppySuggested by aquatics group, host to threatened salamander mussel. Commercially exploited by biological supply companies that are hard to monitor; also vulnerable to the lampricide TFM.NL NLPlethodon cinereusEastern Red-backed SalamanderSuggested by herp subgroup, info and status needed given loss of habitat.NL NLRana palustrisPickerel FrogTracked in MN heritage database. Natural range is in MN, uses cold water streams, a vulnerable habitat.NL NLFishesAcipenser fulvescensLake SturgeonMN Special Concern, generally recovering in historic drainages.SPC NLAlosa chrysochlorisSkipjack HerringMN Special Concern, absent for decades, but has been reported sporadically since 1986.SPC NLAmmocrypta asprellaCrystal DarterMN Special Concern, difficult to sample and assess.SPC NLAmmocrypta claraWestern Sand DarterPreferred habitats rarely sampled.NL NLAnguilla RostrataAmerican Eelcatadromis, difficult to sample and assess, special concern in WI.NL NLAphredoderus sayanusPirate PerchMN Special Concern, preferred habitats rarely sampled.SPC NLCampostoma oligolepisLargescale Stonerollersecure in St. Croix and lower Mississippi drainages, rare in Minnesota drainage.NL NLClinostomus elongatusRedside DaceReduced distribution, special concern in WI, extirpated in IA.NL NLCoregonus hoyiBloaterClassified as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List. Commercial species in Lake Superior, taxonomy of genus suspect.NL NLCoregonus kiyiKiyiMN Special Concern, reported occasionally along North Shore of Lake Superior, taxonomy of genus suspect.SPC NLCoregonus nipigonNipigon ciscoKnown distribution restricted to Saganaga Lake in far NE Minnesota/southern Ontario.NL NLCoregonus zenithicusShortjaw CiscoMN Special Concern, reported rarely along North Shore of Lake Superior, and recently, in two inland lakes, taxonomy of genus suspect.SPC NLCottus riceiSpoonhead sculpinRestricted to L. Superior and one inland lake.NL NLCouesius plumbeusLake ChubSecure in Lake Superior, reduced distribution in inland lakes and streams.NL NLCycleptus elongatusBlue SuckerMN Special Concern, recovering and expanding range into Minnesota River.SPC NLCyprinella lutrensisRed ShinerRestricted to Missouri drainage, far less common than federally endangered Topeka shiner.NL NLErimystax x-punctataGravel ChubMN Special Concern, restricted to Root and Upper and Iowa Rivers.SPC NLEtheostoma asprigeneMud DarterSecure in lower Mississippi River, rare in St. Croix River, special concern in WI.NL NLEtheostoma chlorosomaBluntnose DarterTracked in MN heritage database, two collections since 1997, previously assumed extirpated.NL NLEtheostoma micropercaLeast DarterMN Special Concern, recently found at several new localities, possibly due to more effective sampling methods.SPC NLFundulus sciadicusPlains TopminnowMN Special Concern, restricted to Missouri drainage, far less common than federally endangered Topeka shiner.SPC NLHybognathus nuchalisMississippi Silvery MinnowReduced distribution possibly due to reservoirs, similar decline reported in TVA reservoirs.NL NLIchthyomyzon fossorNorthern Brook LampreyMN Special Concern, secure in Lake of the Woods drainage, one population remains in Lake Superior drainage while others possibly extirpated by lampricide used to control sea lampreys, rare in Zumbro and Upper Iowa Rivers.SPC NLIchthyomyzon gageiSouthern Brook LampreyMN Special Concern, restricted to, but secure, in the St. Croix drainage.SPC NLIctiobus nigerBlack BuffaloMN Special Concern, rarely reported, but recently has expanded range into Minnesota River.SPC NLPage 5 of 9Appendix B. MN CWCS - Set of species in greatest conservation needTomorrow's Habitat for the Wild and Rare: an Action Plan for Minnesota WildlifeV04.06.2006
Scientific NameCommon NameRationaleStateStatusFed.StatusFishesLampetra appendixAmerican Brook LampreyTracked in MN heritage database, recently found at three localities in Minnesota River drainage where it had been absent for decades, secure in the lower Mississippi drainage.NL NLLepomis gulosusWarmouthRestricted to Mississippi River in SE MN, one introduced population in Lake of the Woods drainage.NL NLLepomis megalotisLongear SunfishVery spotty distribution, Threatened in WI.NL NLLythrurus umbratilisRedfin ShinerReduced distribution, Threatened in WI.NL NLMacrhybopsis aestivalisspeckled chubSecure in MN and lower Miss rivers, found in St.Croix in 2004, threatened in WI.NL NLMorone mississippiensisYellow BassMN Special Concern, restricted distribution.SPC NLMoxostoma carinatumRiver RedhorseSecure in St. Croix and lower Mississippi Rivers, extirpated in Minnesota Rivers, threatened in WI.NL NLMoxostoma duquesneiBlack RedhorseTracked in MN heritage database, restricted to the Zumbro, Root, and Upper Iowa Rivers.NL NLMoxostoma valenciennesiGreater RedhorseSecure in upper Mississippi and St. Croix drainages, extirpated in Lake of the Woods drainage, threatened in WI.NL NLMyoxocephalus thompsoniDeepwater SculpinRestricted to Lake Superior and one inland lake.NL NLNotropis amnisPallid ShinerMN Special Concern.SPC NLNotropis anogenusPugnose ShinerMN Special Concern, difficult to identify in field.SPC NLNotropis nubilusOzark MinnowMN Special Concern, restricted to the Zumbro, Root, and Cedar Rivers.SPC NLNotropis topekaTopeka ShinerFederally Endangered, historically occurred in the Mississippi River drainage in SE Minnesota south of St. Anthony falls.SPC ENDNoturus exilisSlender MadtomMN Special Concern, restricted to one stream.SPC NLOpsopoeodus emiliaePugnose MinnowExhibits wide fluctuation in abundance.NL NLPercina evidesGilt DarterMN Special Concern, restricted to, but secure, in the St. Croix drainage.SPC NLPhenacobius mirabilisSuckermouth MinnowReduced distribution.NL NLPlatygobio gracilisflathead chubOne collection from Red River of the North, additional occurrences in southern Manitoba.NL NLPolyodon spathulaPaddlefishMN Threatened, generally recovering in historic drainages.THR NLProsopium coulteripygmy whitefishDisjunct population, difficult to sample and assess, Special Concern in WI.NL NLScaphirhynchus platorynchus Shovelnose SturgeonTracked in MN heritage database, rapidly recovering.NL NLSpidersHabronattus texanusA Jumping SpiderMN Special Concern.SPC NLMarpissa grataA Jumping SpiderMN Special Concern.SPC NLMetaphidippus arizonensisA Jumping SpiderMN Special Concern.SPC NLParadamoetas fontanaA Jumping SpiderMN Special Concern.SPC NLPhidippus apacheanusA Jumping SpiderMN Special Concern.SPC NLPhidippus piusA Jumping SpiderMN Special Concern.SPC NLSassacus papenhoeiA Jumping SpiderMN Special Concern.SPC NLTutelina formicariaA Jumping SpiderMN Special Concern.SPC NLInsectsAflexia rubranuraRed Tailed Prairie LeafhopperMN Special Concern.SPC NLAgapetus tomusA CaddisflyMN Special Concern.SPC NLAllocapnia illinoensisA StoneflyHeritage global ranked (G3).NL NLAsynarchus rossiA CaddisflyMN Special Concern.SPC NLAtrytone arogosArogos SkipperMN Special Concern.SPC NLPage 6 of 9Appendix B. MN CWCS - Set of species in greatest conservation needTomorrow's Habitat for the Wild and Rare: an Action Plan for Minnesota WildlifeV04.06.2006
Scientific NameCommon NameRationaleStateStatusFed.StatusInsectsCeraclea brevisA CaddisflyMN Special Concern.SPC NLCeraclea vertreesiVertrees's Ceraclean CaddisflyMN Special Concern.SPC NLChilostigma itascaeHeadwater Chilostigman CaddisflyMN Endangered.END NLCicindela denikeiA Tiger BeetleMN Threatened.THR NLCicindela fulgida fulgidaA Tiger BeetleMN Endangered.END NLCicindela fulgida westbourneiA Tiger BeetleMN Threatened.THR NLCicindela hirticollis rhodensisA Tiger BeetleMN Special Concern.SPC NLCicindela lepidaLittle White Tiger BeetleMN Threatened.THR NLCicindela limbata nymphaA Tiger BeetleMN Endangered.END NLCicindela macra macraA Tiger BeetleMN Special Concern.SPC NLCicindela patruela patruelaA Tiger BeetleMN Special Concern.SPC NLCicindela splendida cyanocephalataA Tiger BeetleMN Special Concern.SPC NLEpidemia epixanthe michiganensis Bog CopperTracked in MN heritage database.NL NLErebia disa mancinusDisa AlpineMN Special Concern.SPC NLErynnis persiusPersius DuskywingMN Endangered.END NLEuphyes bimacula illinoisTwo-spotted SkipperTracked in MN heritage database.NL NLGomphus crassusHandsome ClubtailHeritage global ranked (G3).NL NLGomphus notatusElusive ClubtailPossibly remove - not on MN dragonfly checklist. Heritage global ranked (G3).NL NLGomphus ventricosusSkillet ClubtailHeritage global ranked (G3).NL NLGomphus viridifronsGreen-faced ClubtailHeritage global ranked (G3).NL NLHesperia comma assiniboiaAssiniboia SkipperMN Endangered.END NLHesperia dacotaeDakota SkipperMN Threatened. Federal candidate for listing under the ESA.THR CANDHesperia leonardus leonardusLeonard's SkipperMN Special Concern.SPC NLHesperia leonardus pawneePawnee SkipperMN Special Concern.SPC NLHesperia ottoeOttoe SkipperMN Threatened.THR NLHesperia uncasUncas SkipperMN Endangered.END NLHydroptila metoecaA CaddisflyMN Special Concern.SPC NLHydroptila novicolaA CaddisflyMN Special Concern.SPC NLHydroptila tortosaA CaddisflyMN Special Concern.SPC NLHygrotus sylvanusSylvan Hygrotus Diving BeetleHeritage global ranked (G1).NL NLIsogenoides olivaceusA Perlid StoneflyHeritage global ranked (G3).NL NLIsogenoides variansA StoneflyHeritage global ranked (G3).NL NLLycaeides idas nabokoviNabokov's BlueMN Special Concern.SPC NLLycaeides melissa samuelisKarner BlueFederally Endangered, MN Endangered.END ENDOarisma garitaGarita SkipperMN Threatened.THR NLOarisma powesheikPowesheik SkipperMN Special Concern.SPC NLOeneis macouniiMacoun's ArcticTracked in MN heritage database.NL NLOeneis uhleri varunaUhler's ArcticMN Endangered.END NLPage 7 of 9Appendix B. MN CWCS - Set of species in greatest conservation needTomorrow's Habitat for the Wild and Rare: an Action Plan for Minnesota WildlifeV04.06.2006
Scientific NameCommon NameRationaleStateStatusFed.StatusInsectsOphiogomphus anomalisExtra-striped SnaketailMN Special Concern.SPC NLOphiogomphus howeiPygmy SnaketailHeritage global ranked (G3).NL NLOphiogomphus susbehchaSt. Croix SnaketailMN Special Concern.SPC NLOxyethira ecornutaA CaddisflyMN Special Concern.SPC NLOxyethira itascaeA CaddisflyMN Special Concern.SPC NLPapaipema beerianaBlazing Star Stem BorerHeritage global ranked (G3).NL NLPhyciodes batesiiTawny CrescentTracked in MN heritage database.NL NLPolycentropus milacaA CaddisflyMN Special Concern.SPC NLProtoptila talolaA CaddisflyMN Special Concern.SPC NLPyrgus centaureae freijaGrizzled SkipperMN Special Concern.SPC NLSchinia indianaPhlox MothMN Special Concern.SPC NLSetodes guttatusA CaddisflyMN Special Concern.SPC NLSpeyeria idaliaRegal FritillaryMN Special Concern.SPC NLMollusksAcella haldemaniSpindle LymnaeaHeritage global ranked (G3), state occurrence uncertain, landsnail.NL NLActinonaias ligamentinaMucket musselMN Threatened.THR NLAlasmidonta marginataElktoeMN Threatened.THR NLArcidens confragosusRock PocketbookMN Endangered.END NLCampeloma spp.Suggested by aquatics expert group. A genus of aquatic snails, little is known, indications of decline.NLCumberlandia monodontaSpectaclecaseMN Threatened, Federal candidate.THR CANDCyclonaias tuberculataPurple WartybackMN Threatened.THR NLEllipsaria lineolataButterflyMN Threatened.THR NLElliptio crassidensElephant-earMN Endangered.END NLElliptio dilatataSpikeMN Special Concern.SPC NLEpioblasma triquetraSnuffboxMN Threatened.THR NLFusconaia ebenaEbonyshellMN Endangered.END NLLampsilis higginsiiHiggins EyeMN Endangered, Federally Endangered.END ENDLampsilis teresYellow SandshellMN Endangered.END NLLasmigona compressaCreek HeelsplitterMN Special Concern.SPC NLLasmigona costataFluted-shellMN Special Concern.SPC NLLigumia rectaBlack SandshellMN Special Concern.SPC NLMegalonaias nervosaWashboardMN Threatened.THR NLNovasuccinea n. sp. minnesota aMinnesota Pleistocene AmbersnailMN Threatened.THR NLNovasuccinea n. sp. minnesota bIowa Pleistocene AmbersnailMN Endangered.END NLObovaria olivariaHickorynutMN Special Concern.SPC NLPlanorbella corpulentaCorpulent Rams-hornHeritage global ranked (G2).NL NLPlethobasus cyphyusSheepnoseMN Endangered, Federal Candidate.END CANDPleurobema coccineumRound PigtoeMN Threatened.THR NLPage 8 of 9Appendix B. MN CWCS - Set of species in greatest conservation needTomorrow's Habitat for the Wild and Rare: an Action Plan for Minnesota WildlifeV04.06.2006
Scientific NameCommon NameRationaleStateStatusFed.StatusMollusksPleurocera acutaSharp hornsnailSuggested by aquatics expert group. Population appears to have greatly declined from early 70's surveys.NL NLQuadrula fragosaWinged MapleleafMN Endangered, Federally Endangered.END ENDQuadrula metanevraMonkeyfaceMN Threatened.THR NLQuadrula nodulataWartybackMN Endangered.END NLSimpsonaias ambiguaSalamander MusselMN Threatened.THR NLTritogonia verrucosaPistolgripMN Threatened.THR NLTruncilla donaciformisFawnsfootObserved to be greatly diminished in numbers in the Mississippi and St Croix Rivers since the 1970sNL NLVenustaconcha ellipsiformisEllipseMN Threatened.THR NLVertigo bollesianaDelicate VertigoHeritage global ranked (G3). Landsnail, found in southern Beltrami and Clearwater counties (Nekola 2002).NL NLVertigo brierensisBriarton Pleistocene SnailHeritage global ranked (G1), Globally, 2 occurrences from Iowa, range possibly extends into MN.NL NLVertigo hubrichtiHubricht's VertigoHeritage global ranked (G2). Taxonomy uncertain.NL NLVertigo hubrichti hubrichtiMidwest Pleistocene VertigoMN Endangered.END NLVertigo hubrichti variabilis n. subsp.Variable Pleistocene VertigoMN Threatened.THR NLVertigo meramecensisBluff VertigoMN Threatened.THR NLVertigo occultaHeritage global ranked (G2). Taxonomy uncertain.NL NLStatus codes:Fed. Status = Federal status on Endangered Species ListEND = EndangeredTHR = ThreatenedSPC = Special ConcernCAND = Candidate species for listingNL= Not listedPage 9 of 9Appendix B. MN CWCS - Set of species in greatest conservation needTomorrow's Habitat for the Wild and Rare: an Action Plan for Minnesota WildlifeV04.06.2006
Tomorrow’s Habitat for the Wild and Rare: An Action Plan for Minnesota Wildlife 254
Dry Sand-Gravel Prairie (Southern) (Ups13b) T.J. Whitfeld, MN DNR Ecological Systems
Upland Prairie (UP)
Wetland Prairie (WP)
Native Plant Community Types (NPC)
Dry Barrens Prairie (Northern)
Dry Sand-Gravel Prairie (Northern) Dry Sand-Gravel Brush-Prairie (Northern)
Dry Hill Prairie (Northern) Mesic Prairie (Northern) Dry Barrens Prairie (Southern) Dry Sand-Gravel Prairie (Southern) Dry Bedrock Bluff Prairie (Southern) Dry Hill Prairie (Southern) Mesic Prairie (Southern)
Wet Seepage Prairie (Northern) Wet Prairie (Northern)
Wet Saline Prairie (Northern) Wet Seepage Prairie (Southern) Wet Prairie (Southern) Wet Saline Prairie (Southern)
NPC CodesUPn12aUPn12bUPn12cUPn12dUpn23b
Ups13aUps13b
Ups13cUps13d
Ups23a
WPn53aWPn53cWPn53dWPs54aWPs54bWPs54c
Prairie
Source: MN GAP 1993 Source: Marschner 1930
Past distribution Current distribution
Tomorrow’s Habitat for the Wild and Rare: An Action Plan for Minnesota Wildlife 255
Prairie habitat is dominated by native grasses with a species
-rich component of forbs (herbaceous plants other than
grasses or sedges). The major grasses on upland sites are big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), prairie dropseed
(Sporobolus heterolepis), and little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium). Big bluestem and prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinata) are the major species on wetter sites, which also
support a variety of sedge (Carex) species. The most common forbs in terms of species number are in the families Asteraceae and Fabaceae. On upland sites woody species are
limited to dwarf shrubs such as leadplant (Amorpha canescens) and prairie rose (Rosa arkansana), whereas
lowland sites support both dwarf shrubs (e.g., prairie rose) and true shrubs such as red-osier dogwood (Cornus sericea)and willows (Salix spp.)
Frequent fire is essential to maintaining prairie in Minnesota. Without fire, trees and shrubs invade prairie areas
throughout the state. Fire at intervals of 10 years or less, on average, prevents trees and shrubs from becoming large enough to survive fire, thus maintaining the dominance of
herbaceous species. Grazing by bison and elk was an important ecological process on pre-European settlement prairies, but the role of grazing and browsing in maintaining
prairie is unclear. Grasses, which grow from lateral meristems at the base of the plant, are well adapted to
grazing, which generally removes only the upper portion of the plant.
Prior to settlement by people of European descent, prairie
was the dominant habitat throughout the Prairie Parkland Province and in most of the southernmost portions of the
Eastern Broadleaf Forest Province, with the exception of the deeply dissected eastern portion of the Paleozoic Plateau. Prairie also occurred in much of the Anoka Sand Plain
Subsection of the Eastern Broadleaf Forest Province. The distribution of prairie was generally limited to landscapes with relatively gentle topography, with the exception of
“goat” prairies on dry, steep south-facing slopes in southeastern Minnesota. Hilly topography, abundant lakes
and rivers, and higher rainfall impeded the spread of fire in the woodlands and forests to the north and east. Today less than one percent of the pre-European settlement prairie
habitat remains in the state.
Prairie native plant communities span the soil moisture
spectrum from dry sand-gravel prairies on coarse, droughty soils to wet prairies on poorly drained sites with a variety of soil textures. Prairie soils, with the exception of sandy
substrates on dry sites, are generally classified as mollisols, which are very dark, base-rich mineral soils.
• Support incentives that avoid conversion of
grasslands into row crops where SGCN occur.
• Use mowing, cutting woody vegetation,
prescribed fire, or careful use of herbicides to prevent the invasion of grasslands by trees and shrubs.
• Lengthen the cutting rotations for hay; avoid early-season mowing.
• Use light to moderate, rotational grazing programs to benefit SGCN
• Prevent fragmentation of grassland habitat.
• Avoid soil compaction in areas occupied by mammal SGCN.
• Increase native plant species components
• Control spread of invasive species to adjacent
native-dominated sites.
Prairie provides habitat features for a variety of insect SGCN that are not found in other grassland
habitats. These insects, which include seven species of butterflies and a leafhopper, require a specific host plant or microhabitat structure limited
to prairie. Insects that lay eggs on a specific host plant include the regal fritillary (bearded birdfoot
violet [Viola pedatifida]); the arogos skipper (big
bluestem [Andropogon gerardii]); the uncas skipper (hairy grama [Bouteloua hirsuta]); and the
red-tailed leafhopper (prairie dropseed [Sporobolus heterolepis]). In addition, several of these butterflies may require a particular
microhabitat structure. For example, several skippers (including the Dakota skipper) seem to require bunchgrasses characteristic of the prairie
habitat as opposed to sod-forming grasses, which characterize other grasslands. All of the butterflies
require a variety of flowering forbs as nectar
sources on which adults feed.
Three bird SGCN, chestnut-collared longspur, Sprague’s pipit, and Baird’s sparrow, are native prairie specialists that were common in portions of
western Minnesota prior to settlement by people ofEuropean descent and are now extremely rare as
the result of the conversion of prairie to cropland.
Chestnut-collared longspurs and Sprague’s pipits prefer dry prairie sites with short grasses, which
are maintained by fire or grazing. In North Dakota, pipit abundance is significantly correlated with native grasses; non-native plant mixes such as
those sometimes used on lands enrolled in easements under the federal farm program provide very poor pipit (and Baird’s sparrow) habitat.
Baird’s sparrows are sensitive to habitat fragmentation and prefer native prairie.
Management Options to Support
Species in Greatest Conservation Need
Examples of Important Features for Species in Greatest Conservation NeedGeneral Description
Prairie
Tomorrow’s Habitat for the Wild and Rare: An Action Plan for Minnesota Wildlife 262
Ecological SystemsUpland Prairie (UP)
Lake Shore (LK)
Rock Outcrop (RO)
Native Plant Community Types (NPC)Dry Barrens Jack Pine Savanna (Northern)
Dry Barrens Oak Savanna (Northern) Dry Sand-Gravel Oak Savanna (Northern)
Dry Hill Oak Savanna (Northern) Mesic Brush-Prairie (Northern)
Mesic Oak Savanna (Northern) Aspen Openings (Northern)
Dry Barrens Oak Savanna (Southern) Dry Sand-Gravel Oak Savanna (Southern) Dry Hill Oak Savanna (Southern) Mesic Oak Savanna (Southern)
Juniper Dune Shrubland (Lake Superior)
Beach Ridge Shrubland (Lake Superior)
Bedrock Shrubland (Inland) Bedrock Shrubland (Lake Superior)
NPC Codes
UPn13aUPn13b
UPn13cUPn13d
UPn23aUPn24a
UPn24bUPs14aUPs14bUps14cUPs24a
LKu32bLku32d
Ron23aRon23b
Shrub/Woodland-Upland
E. Fuge MN DNR Current distributionPast distribution
Source: Marschner 1930 Source: MN GAP 1993
Dry Hill Oak Savanna (Southern) (UPs14c )
Tomorrow’s Habitat for the Wild and Rare: An Action Plan for Minnesota Wildlife 263
General Description
The shrub/woodland-upland habitat is a combination of (1)
savannas and brush-prairies, (2) bedrock shrublands, and (3) seral and edge upland shrub areas.
Savannas and brush-prairies typically occur where fire frequency or intensity is somewhat lower than in prairie
landscapes, yet higher than in forested areas. At such sites,
more fire-tolerant shrubs and trees can persist, forming brush-prairie and savanna communities. While savanna and
brush-prairie communities intergrade, they are distinguished by certain characteristics. Savannas typically have scattered trees, sometimes clumps of trees, growing in a prairie matrix.
Bur oak is the most common and widespread tree, but northern pin oak and, in the extreme southeastern part of the state, black oak are also typical. Small, open-grown, often
gnarled bur oaks are the most distinctive savanna tree species. Savannas where jack pine is the predominant tree
species occur on deep sand substrates in the northern half of the state. Brush-prairies are characterized by an abundance oftaller shrubs, oak “grubs” and sprouts, and quaking aspen
suckers. In brush-prairies, herbaceous prairie plants are still a major component of the vegetation, but the woody components are more prevalent than in prairie. In the absence
of fire, both savannas and brush-prairies rapidly succeed to woodland; brush-prairie moves to woodland faster than does
savanna. Today, most brush-prairies occur in the Tallgrass Aspen Parklands Province in northwestern Minnesota.
Bedrock shrublands are shrub-dominated plant communities
on horizontal or sloping bedrock exposures. They are common in landscapes with thin soil over bedrock. This
community is most common in the Border Lakes and North Shore Highlands subsections but also occurs in other locations where bedrock is at or near the surface, especially
in other parts of the Laurentian Mixed Forest Province and along the Minnesota River in southwestern Minnesota. Characteristic shrub species in the Laurentian Mixed Forest
Province include juneberries (Amelanchier spp.), bush honeysuckle (Diervilla lonicera), and shrubby northern red
oaks (Quercus borealis) or northern pin oak (Q. ellipsoidalis). Bedrock shrublands appear to be long-lived successional communities that develop following intense fire
in woodlands or forest. These communities are generally small (< 25 acres) and seldom provide large areas of contiguous shrub/woodland-upland habitat for birds and
large vertebrates.
Although seral upland shrublands are short-lived, they occur
in forested landscapes where most of the trees have been killed by natural or human disturbances. Prior to settlement by people of European descent, most seral shrublands in
Minnesota occurred as the result of fires and windstorms. The resulting shrublands ranged in size from those produced
when one to several canopy trees died to those covering tens of thousands of acres following large stand-replacing fires. Following the advent of fire suppression in the 20th century,
clear-cut logging has replaced fire in the creation of shrublands. Upland shrub edge habitats that occur widely as ecotones between forests and open habitats, such as
agricultural fields, open wetlands, and water bodies, are an important component of upland shrub habitats that are more
long-lived than seral shrublands.
•Protect savannas and bedrock shrublands from development.
• Restore fire to overgrown savannas and brush-prairies.
• Encourage landowners to let brushy old fields develop in fallow fields.
• Encourage managers of urban and suburban parks to maintain dead trees and trees with dead branches.
Five-lined skinks,six-lined racerunners,eastern hognose snakes,milk snakes, and lined snakes are most common in and around woodland edge habitats
and savannas. Five-lined skinks use rock fissures and cracks in bedrock outcrops as hibernacula, but the
suitability of this habitat is threatened by the
encroachment of eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana). Several of these reptiles (six-lined
racerunners, eastern racers, and lined snakes) prefer more open areas. Other species (five-lined skinks, eastern hognose snakes, and milk snakes) prefer
edges, using openings as basking areas. Key habitat features for these species include down woody debris (for cover, nesting sites, and basking sites) and
burrows or crevices as overwintering sites.
The decline of red-headed woodpeckers has been linked to fire suppression and the decline of oak savanna habitat, changes in farming practices (such
as shifts to larger monoculture fields and the lost of hedgerows), and removal of dead trees and branches in urban areas. Large snags without bark are an
important habitat feature for this woodpecker. Brushy old fields and road or railroad rights-of-way near
open fields provide key habitats for field sparrows.Bell’s vireos breed in dense, low shrubby areas, primarily in southeastern Minnesota. Brown
thrashers require shrubby edge habitats and are found across the state except in dense forests. Thrashers do, however, use clear-cuts in forested
regions of the state, and in western Minnesota shrubby fencerows and shelterbelts provide good
habitat for this species.
Management Options to Support Species
in Greatest Conservation Need
General Description Examples of Important Features for Species in Greatest Conservation Need
Shrub/Woodland-Upland
Tomorrow’s Habitat for the Wild and Rare: An Action Plan for Minnesota Wildlife 250
Sugar Maple-Basswood (Aspen) Forest (MHc37b)
Source: Marschner 1930
Ecological Systems
Mesic Hardwood Forest (MH)
Native Plant Community Types (NPC)
Paper Birch-Sugar Maple Forest (North Shore) Sugar Maple Forest (North Shore)
Sugar Maple Basswood (Bluebead Lily) Forest Sugar Maple Basswood (Horsetail) Forest
Red Oak-Basswood Forest (Calcareous Till) Sugar Maple-Basswood (Aspen) Forest White Pine-Sugar Maple-Basswood Forest (Cold Slope) Basswood-Black Ash Forest Sugar Maple-Basswood (Bitternut Hickory) Forest Sugar Maple-Basswood-Red Oak (Blue Beech) Forest Sugar Maple Forest (Big Woods) Elm-Basswood-Black Ash (Hackberry) Forest Elm-Basswood-Black Ash (Blue Beech) Forest
NPC Codes
MHn45aMHn45c
MHn47aMHn47b
MHc36bMHc37bMHc38aMHc47aMHs39aMHs39bMHs39cMHs49aMHs49b
Source: MN GAP 1993
Past distribution Current distribution
Forest-Upland Deciduous (Hardwood) (i.e., maple-basswood)T.J. Whitfeld MN DNR
Tomorrow’s Habitat for the Wild and Rare: An Action Plan for Minnesota Wildlife 251
Unfragmented older mesic hardwood forests are a key habitat requirement for several SCGN found
in the hardwood forest habitat. In addition to practicing sustainable forestry at the site level,
collaborative management across ownerships can
also create larger forest patches and reduce forest fragmentation.
Explore opportunities to implement forest management practices that:
• Use natural disturbance return intervals to
guide rotation periods.
• Manage to maintain and create large patches
of upland forest.
• Manage stands to retain biological legacies
(at site level).
• Manage invasive plants and animals.
• Work with Minnesota DNR Division of Fish and Wildlife to determine ecologically and
socially desirable deer population levels across the state.
• Collaborate management across ownerships to increase patch size.
Upland deciduous hardwood forest habitat occurs on upland sites with soils that retain water and in settings where
wildfires are infrequent. A continuous, often dense, canopy of deciduous trees, especially sugar maple, basswood, and red oak, characterizes this habitat. Other canopy trees include
American elm, red elm, black ash, green ash, bitternut hickory, and hackberry. Older forests commonly have several nearly closed layers of woody plants, including a well-
defined forest canopy, subcanopy, and shrub layer. These layers combine to produce continuous cover. Thus, most
sunlight is filtered and attenuated before it reaches herbaceous plants and seedlings on the forest floor. The plants found in this habitat are adapted to the low intensity of
light in these forests.
Natural disturbance in this habitat is characterized by the
death of individual trees, which occurs at a rather constant
rate in older forests. Stand-regenerating disturbances such as wildfires and catastrophic windthrow were rare historically in
this mesic habitat, having average frequencies of once every 360 to more than 1,000 years. Disturbances that resulted in the partial loss of canopy trees, such as light surface fires and
moderate windthrow, were far more frequent. Historically, surface fire was more important in the north, and wind was
more important in central and southern Minnesota.
Typical sites are buffered from seasonal drought by fine-textured soils with impermeable soil horizons capable of
retaining rainfall or snowmelt below the surface. Usually these soils are well drained and are waterlogged or saturated
only after spring snowmelt or heavy, prolonged rains. Essential nutrients, especially nitrogen, are mineralized from decaying organic matter at relatively high rates and quickly
become available again for uptake by plants during the spring and early summer months. As a result, nutrients and organic matter accumulate at the soil surface in leaf litter and humus.
Upland deciduous hardwood forest habitats in the Eastern Broadleaf Forest Province occur most often where rugged
terrain, water bodies such as lakes and rivers, and moist soil provide protection from wildfires, whereas in the Laurentian Mixed Forest Province this habitat often occurs on level to
rolling landscapes with fine-textured soils that retain water.
The extent of upland deciduous hardwood forests has been
greatly reduced in southern and west-central Minnesota since settlement by people of European descent. The extensive mesic hardwood forests of the Big Woods Subsection have
been reduced by a factor of more than 100. However, in the northern parts of the Laurentian Mixed Forest Province, the
extent of maple-basswood forests has increased as a result of fire suppression. Like other forest habitats, most maple-basswood habitats in the Eastern Broadleaf Forest Province
and southern and western portions of the Laurentian Mixed Forest Province have been fragmented by agriculture and development. In many locations, the remaining forests
typically lack the ecological complexity of pre-European settlement forests because of a number of factors (for
example, grazing, invasive plants and animals, edge effects, changes in native animal populations, and consumptive uses).
Acadian flycatchers,cerulean warblers,hooded
warblers, and red-shouldered hawks generally require large areas of contiguous mature to old-growth hardwood forest. Acadian flycatchers favor
relatively undisturbed forests and experience high rates of brood parasitism and nest depredation in
fragmented landscapes. Cerulean warblers need
large, tall trees with horizontal heterogeneity in the canopy, and hooded warblers need mature forests
with significant treefall gaps that provide shrubby undergrowth for nesting.
Woodland voles require moist, light soil or humus in forests to construct burrows. Grazing by cattle,
which compacts the soil, and the presence of
invasive non-native earthworms, which destroy the humus, may make forests within its limited range
in southeastern Minnesota unsuitable for this species.
Hardwood forests also provide the same important habitat features for wood thrushes,ovenbirds,and least flycatchers statewide, and for black-throated blue warblers,northern goshawks,four-toed salamanders, and red-backed
salamanders, which are described in the Upland Forest general description section.
Examples of Features Important for
Species in Greatest Conservation Need
Management Options to Support
Species in Greatest Conservation Need
General Description
Forest-Upland Deciduous (Hardwood) (i.e., maple-basswood)
Tomorrow’s Habitat for the Wild and Rare: An Action Plan for Minnesota Wildlife 266
Sedge Meadow (WMn82b) E.R. Rowe MN DNR Ecological Systems
Marsh (MR)
Wet Meadow/Carr (WM)
Open Rich Peatland (OP)
Acid Peatland (AP)
Native Plant Community Types (NPC)Cattail-Sedge Marsh (Northern) Cattail Marsh (Northern) Bulrush Marsh (Northern) Spikerush-Bur Reed Marsh (Northern)
Estuary Marsh (Lake Superior) Cattail-Sedge Marsh (Prairie) Cattail Marsh (Prairie)
Bulrush Marsh (Prairie) Spikerush-Bur Reed Marsh (Prairie) Arrowhead Marsh (Prairie)
Sedge Meadow
Seepage Meadow/Carr Basin Meadow/Carr Prairie Meadow/Carr
Graminoid Rich Fen (Water Track)
Graminoid Rich Fen (Basin) Graminoid-Sphagnum Rich Fen (Basin) Spring Fen Rich Fen (Mineral Soil) Rich Fen (Peatland) Rich Fen (Prairie Seepage) Calcareous Fen (Northwestern) Calcareous Fen (Southwestern) Calcareous Fen (Southeastern)
Graminoid Bog Graminoid Poor Fen (Basin) Graminoid Poor Fen (Water Track)
NPC Codes
MRn83a MRn83b
MRn93a MRn93b MRu94a MRp83a MRp83b MRp93a MRp93b MRp93c
WMn82b WMs83a WMs92a WMp73a
OPn91bOPn92aOPn92bOPn93aOPp91aOPp91b
OPp91cOPp93aOPp93b
OPp93c
APn90bAPn91bAPn91c
Nonforested wetlands
Source: MN GAP 1993
Past distribution
Source: Marschner 1930
Current distribution
Tomorrow’s Habitat for the Wild and Rare: An Action Plan for Minnesota Wildlife 267
The nonforested wetland habitat is a collection of wetland plant
communities dominated by herbaceous plant species. Like all wetlands, this habitat occurs on sites with a high water table, and many nonforested wetland communities are flooded for most or all of the year. Because of the
high water table or flooding, soils in these habitats are usually saturated for prolonged periods and are often anaerobic. Many dominant plants in
wetland communities are tolerant of persistently deep water levels and have stems, leaves, and roots that contain intercellular air spaces (aerenchyma) that store oxygen and diffuse it from above-water structures to roots during
waterlogged conditions. Nonforested wetlands are found throughout Minnesota and consist of several major types: marshes, wet meadows, fens, and bogs.
Marshes occur on permanently or periodically inundated sites. These communities are typically inundated by nutrient-rich water. They include
emergent marshes and open marshes. Emergent marshes are dominated by vascular plants, such as cattails (Typha spp.), that can survive indefinitely
with their roots and lower stem submerged and their aerial shoots above
water. In addition to cattails, emergent marshes are characterized by perennial emergent plants, such as bulrushes (Scirpus spp.) and arrowheads
(Sagittaria spp.), mixed with annual forbs during low-water periods when substrates are exposed, and with floating-leaved and submergent aquatic plants in settings with persistent standing water. Emergent plants provide
important habitat for a variety of wetland bird species. Plants with floating leaves, such as water lilies, dominate open marshes, which are sometimes classified as aquatic communities. Variation in species composition over
time in response to changes in hydrological conditions is common in marshes.
Wet meadows are graminoid-dominated wetlands that are annually subjected to moderate inundation following spring thaw and heavy rains, and to periodic drawdowns during summer. The dominant graminoids are
broad-leaved species such as lake sedge (Carex lacustris), tussock sedge (C. stricta), and bluejoint (Calamagrostis canadensis). Peak water levels
are high and persistent enough to prevent trees and most shrubs from becoming established. However, there may be little or no standing water present during much of the growing season. As a result, the substrate
surface alternates between aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Any organic matter that accumulates over time is usually oxidized during periodic drawdowns and may even burn during severe droughts. Soils range from
mineral soils to muck and peat. Because surface water is derived from runoff, stream flow, or groundwater, it is circumneutral (pH 6.0–8.0) and
has high mineral and nutrient content. Wet meadows are present statewide in wetland basins, along streams and drainageways, in drained beaver ponds, in shallow bays, and as semifloating mats along sheltered lake
shorelines. Wet meadows grade into lowland shrub communities where water levels are lower and less persistent.
Open rich peatland communities are graminoid- or low shrub-dominated wetlands on actively forming deep peat. The dominant graminoids are most often fine-leaved sedges (Carex spp.). Mosses, particularly brown mosses,
are common in wet hollows. Open rich peatland communities are widespread in the Laurentian Mixed Forest Province, where cool climate, abundant precipitation, and the presence of poorly drained basins and
glacial lake plains provide suitable conditions for peat development. They also occur throughout much of the Eastern Broadleaf Forest Province and
into the Prairie Parkland and Tallgrass Aspen Parklands provinces. In these three provinces, open rich peatland communities are near the southern and western limits of the range of peatland development in Minnesota and are
generally confined to floating mats or settings where groundwater discharge is sufficient to offset higher rates of evapotranspiration caused by warmer temperatures.
Wet meadows and fens typically provide optimal habitat for sedge
wrens,yellow rails, and Nelson’s sharp-tailed sparrows. Permanent water a few centimeters in depth
and dense vegetation less than 12 inches (30 centimeters) tall appear to be important habitat features for
Nelson’s sharp-tailed sparrows, whereas yellow rails use wet
meadows with water depths ranging from moist soil to 12 inches (30 centimeters). A key habitat feature
for the latter species is a canopy of dead sedges that allows the bird to move freely beneath. Two-spotted skippers are found in wet meadows, but little else is known
about their habitat requirements.
Least bitterns,American bitterns,
marsh wrens, and Virginia railsrequire emergent marshes as breeding habitat. Least bitterns
show a strong association with cattails, preferring dense, tall stands
interspersed with woody vegetation
and open water. American bitterns use similar habitats but use less
densely vegetated sites in shallower water. Both bitterns tend to be limited to wetlands greater than 25
acres (10 hectares) in size. Virginia rails need a mixture of emergent
vegetation of cattails or bullrushes,
open water, and mud flats for foraging. They frequent younger,
earlier successional marshes, avoiding older marshes with dense vegetation.
Forster’s terns require large deep-water marshes with considerable
open water. Muskrat houses or floating mats of vegetation are
important nest sites.
General Description
Nonforested wetlands
Examples of Important
Features for Species in
Greatest Conservation Need
Tomorrow’s Habitat for the Wild and Rare: An Action Plan for Minnesota Wildlife 268
The plants characteristic of graminoid fens are adapted to full sunlight, sustained water levels, low nutrient levels, and high mineral levels. This
environment is well suited to dominance by sun-loving herbaceous species, brown mosses, and minerotrophic Sphagnum species. The lack of shade
from trees and shrubs favors dominance in the ground layer by shade-intolerant species, especially graminoids. Like many wetland plants, the characteristic species in these communities, such as sedges (Carex spp.)
and buckbean (Menyanthes trifoliata), have aerenchyma to store oxygen. Other plants, such as tufted bulrush (Scirpus cespitosus), form hummocks that elevate the plant above persistently anaerobic peat surfaces.
Although nutrients are low in graminoid fen communities, concentrations of minerals such as calcium can be very high near groundwater discharge
points, particularly where peatlands are underlain by calcareous glacial deposits. Plants that thrive in areas of calcareous groundwater discharge (e.g., calcareous fens) include tufted bulrush, Kalm’s lobelia (Lobelia kalmii), and grass of Parnassus (Parnassia spp.), along with the rare species twig rush (Cladium mariscoides) and hairlike beak rush (Rhynchospora
capillacea).
Nonforested wetlands have declined by more than 50 percent in 13 of the 25 Minnesota ecological classification subsections, most notably in the
subsections of the Prairie Parkland Province, but also including the Anoka Sand Plain, Aspen Parklands, and Big Woods subsections. The Wetland
Conservation Act regulates the alteration of wetlands through a variety of methods; however the common strategy of developing replacement wetlands often lacks the diversity and complexity of natural wetlands.
Invasive species such as purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) and glossy buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) threaten many remaining wetlands. Water appropriations may cause changes in hydrology that in turn cause shifts in
the composition of plant species and decrease habitat suitability for animals.
General Description (continued)
• Prevent loss or degradation of all types of nonforested
wetlands.
• Preserve nonforested
wetlands, especially in the Eastern Broadleaf Forest and
Prairie Parkland provinces.
• Focus on protecting wetlands
larger than 10 hectares (25 acres) and wetland complexes.
• Restore large wetland complexes, with attention to the habitat features required
by SGCN.
• Avoid creating impoundments
that flood wet meadows.
• Manage the invasions of
invasive exotic plants in nonforested wetlands (e.g., purple loosestrife, Phragmites).
• Protect known nesting areas of
Forster’s terns.
• Enforce wetland protection
regulations (“no-net loss”).
Nonforested wetlands
Management Options to
Support Species in Greatest
Conservation Need
Tomorrow’s Habitat for the Wild and Rare: An Action Plan for Minnesota Wildlife 269
Graminoid Rich Fen (Water Track) (Opn91b) D. Wovcha MN DNR Cattail-Sedge Marsh (Prairie) (MRp83a) D. Wovcha MN DNR Nonforested wetlands
Tomorrow’s Habitat for the Wild and Rare: An Action Plan for Minnesota Wildlife 272
Duck Slough, Stearns County. M. Lee MN DNR Lake-Shallow
Ecological Systems
Not defined
Native Plant Community Types (NPC)
Aquatic systems are not classified in the native plant communities system.
NPC CodesNone
Source: MN DNR Shallow Lakes Program 2005
Past distribution of
shallow lakes is not
available.
Past distribution Current distribution
Tomorrow’s Habitat for the Wild and Rare: An Action Plan for Minnesota Wildlife 273
•Prevent loss or degradation of all types of shallow
lakes.
• Preserve shallow lakes and wetlands, especially
in the Eastern Broadleaf Forest and Prairie Parkland provinces.
• Focus on protecting larger shallow lakes (> 4
acres (10 hectares)) and shallow lake and wetland complexes.
• Restore large complexes of shallow lakes and wetlands, with attention to the habitat features
required by SGCN.
• Manage for a natural water regime in shallow
lakes.
• Manage the invasions of invasive non-native
plants in shallow lakes (for example, purple loosestrife).
• Protect known nesting areas of Forster’s terns.
• Enforce wetland protection regulations (“no-net
loss”) as they pertain to shallow lakes.
Shallow lakes are permanent or semi-permanent water
bodies less than 15 feet (5 meters) deep, and can be
further classified into four types based on surface area and alkalinity (Table 6.3; Valley et al. 2004).
Table 6.3. Lake Classification Parameters Area Small: < 500 acres
(200 hectares)
Large: > 500 acres
(200 hectares) Alkalinity Alkaline: >100
ppm mg/L CaCO3
Not Alkaline: <
100 ppm mg/L
CaCO3
Shallow lakes have abundant aquatic plant growth due to high nutrient content (phosphorus, nitrogen, and minerals) and the high sunlight availability in shallow
water. Stands of emergent and floating-leaved aquatic plants such as cattails (Typha spp.), bulrush (several genera), water lily (Nymphaea spp.) and reeds (several
genera), as well as submerged plants, such as coontail, are usually present throughout the entire basin, creating an
extended littoral zone. These plants provide excellent food and habitat for zooplankton, insects, fish, waterfowl, and other wildlife. Aquatic vegetation also anchors
sediments, maintaining water clarity (Conroy 2005).
Sediment and nutrients in shallow lakes, unlike in deeper
lakes, are constantly mixing. Shallow lakes lack temperature stratification, and wind–wave action easily
penetrates to the bottom of the shallow basin.
Shallow lakes can often benefit from periods of low water
that stimulate beneficial aquatic plant growth. Persistent and high water levels restrict plant growth and reduce water quality, allowing significant algal growth. Low
water conditions can help set the stage for winterkills that can decrease or eliminate populations of rough fish
species, such as carp and black bullhead. While shallow
lakes can support populations of game fish, low levels of dissolved oxygen and winterkills tend to limit their
numbers.
Chemical, nutrient, and sediment inputs from agricultural
practices and runoff from impervious sources, such as roads, parking lots, and roofs, can seriously degrade
shallow lake habitats. Due to the low volume of water,
shallow lakes can be more susceptible to such runoff than deep-water lakes. Surface water use can sometimes be as
important as land use management in maintaining a healthy shallow lake. Aquatic vegetation can suffer from too many docks, boats, and outboard motors on a lake.
Since settlement by people of European descent, hundreds of thousands of acres of Minnesota’s shallow lakes have been ditched and drained.
Shallow lakes are well recognized for their
importance as breeding areas for waterfowl species, such as the lesser scaup, northern pintail, and common moorhen. They are also important for many
other species.
Least bitterns,American bitterns,marsh wrens,
and Virginia rails require emergent marshes as breeding habitat. Least bitterns show a strong association with cattails, preferring dense, tall stands
interspersed with woody vegetation and open water. American bitterns use similar habitats but use less
densely vegetated sites in shallower water. Both bitterns tend to be limited to wetlands greater than 4 acres (10 hectares) in size. Virginia rails need a
mixture of emergent vegetation of cattails or bulrushes, open water, and mud flats for foraging. They frequent younger, earlier successional marshes,
avoiding older marshes with dense vegetation.
Forster’s terns require large deep-water marshes
with considerable open water. Muskrat houses or floating mats of vegetation are important nest sites.
Management Options to Support Species in
Greatest Conservation Need
Examples of Important Features for Species in Greatest Conservation Need General Description
Lake-Shallow
Tomorrow’s Habitat for the Wild and Rare: An Action Plan for Minnesota Wildlife 264
Horse pasture in MN River Prairie Subsection B. Bolduan MN DNR Ecological Systems
Not defined Native Plant Community Types (NPC)Vegetation assemblages that dominate this habitat are not native
plant communities.
NPC Codes
None
Surrogate Grassland
Source: MN GAP 1993
Surrogate grassland
is not considered a
habitat that
commonly existed
prior to settlement
by people of
European descent.
Current distributionPast distribution
Tomorrow’s Habitat for the Wild and Rare: An Action Plan for Minnesota Wildlife 265
Surrogate grasslands are grasslands that have
developed as a result of human activities since settlement by people of European descent in Minnesota and are typically dominated by non-native, cool-season
grasses. Surrogate grasslands include old fields, hayfields, pastures, and roadside grasslands (Sample
and Mossman 1997). They occur on sites that once supported prairie or forest communities and are found across the state but are less common in the northeast.
Dominant non-native grasses include smooth brome (Bromus inermis), quackgrass (Agropyron repens), redtop (Agrostis stolonifera), timothy (Phleum pratense), and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis). Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea), an non-
native invasive species, dominates this habitat on
wetter sites. The forb component of surrogate grasslands is also dominated by non-native species,
including several species of legumes such as yellow sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis), white sweet clover (M. alba), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), bird’s-foot trefoil
(Lotus corniculatus), and Canada thistle (Cirsiumarvense). Native forbs may also occur in these grasslands, especially goldenrods, milkweeds, and
asters.
Unmanaged surrogate grasslands are usually invaded by native and non-native trees and shrubs. Invasion by non-native species such as Siberian elm (Ulmus
pumila) and Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia),and by natives such as green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), cottonwood (Populus deltoides), and
sumacs (Rhus spp.), can convert grasslands to woodlands or shrublands, reducing or eliminating their
habitat value for many grassland species.
•Support incentives that avoid conversion of
grasslands into row crops where SGCN occur.
• Use mowing, cutting woody vegetation, prescribed fire, or careful use of herbicides to prevent the invasion of grasslands by trees and shrubs.
• Lengthen the cutting rotations for hay; avoid early-
season mowing.
• Use light to moderate, rotational grazing programs
to benefit SGCN
• Prevent fragmentation of grassland habitat.
• Avoid soil compaction in areas occupied by
mammal SGCN.
• Increase native plant species components
• Control spread of invasive species to adjacent
native-dominated sites.
Surrogate grasslands in Minnesota, such as pastures and hayfields, provide habitat for a number of grassland mammal, bird, and reptile and amphibian
SGCN. Most of these species are adapted to prairie but are able to find “adequate” habitat features in
surrogate grasslands. The vegetation structure of
surrogate grasslands appears to be the key element for mammal and bird species that breed there. In addition,
many species select larger patches, avoiding fragmented grasslands. Plain’s pocket mice require sparse grassland vegetation. Prairie voles prefer
relatively dry upland prairies and pastures with a high diversity of forbs. Grasshopper sparrows forage exclusively on the ground and hence require more
open sites in tallgrass grasslands and prairie. Richardson’s ground squirrels are usually found in
short grass prairie or pasture where they can see over
the vegetation.
Henslow’s sparrows require dense grasslands such as hayfields or tallgrass prairie with a certain height and density of stalks (especially standing dead vegetation)
for singing perches; they rarely use fragmented grasslands (< 250 acres (100 hectares).
Some reptiles and mammals require certain soil textures for burrowing that are commonly associated
with surrogate grasslands: plain’s pocket mice need exposed, sandy soil, whereas western hognosesnakes need well-drained loose loamy or sandy soil.
Management Options to Support Species in Greatest Conservation Need
General Examples of Important Features for Species in Greatest Conservation Need
Surrogate Grassland
Page 1 5/28/2015
Reference herein to any specific commercial products, process, or
service by tradename, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise,
does not constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation,
or favoring by MnDOT and the State of Minnesota.
Minnesota Noxious Weeds
http://www.dot.state.mn.us/roadsides/vegetation/pdf/noxiousweeds.pdf
Page 2 5/28/2015 Prohibited: Eradicate List Prohibited: Control List Restricted Noxious Weeds Page Common Name Scientific Name Family
4 Black swallow-wort Cynanchum louiseae Kartesz & Gandhi Asclepiadaceae
5 Common teasel Dipsacus fullonum L. Dipsacaceae
6 Cutleaf teasel Dipsacus laciniatus L. Dipsacaceae
7 Dalmatian toadflax Linaria dalmatica (L.) Mill. Scrophulariaceae
8 Giant hogweed Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Levier Apiaceae
9 Grecian foxglove Digitalis lanata Ehrh. Scrophulariaceae
10 Japanese hops Humulus japonicus Siebold & Zucc. Cannabaceae
11 Oriental bittersweet Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb. Celastraceae
12 Palmer amaranth Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson Amaranthaceae
13 Yellow starthistle Centaurea solstitialis L. Asteraceae
14 Brown knapweed Centaurea jacea L. Asteraceae
15 Meadow knapweed Centaurea x moncktonii C.E. Britton Asteraceae
Page Common Name Scientific Name Family
16 Spotted knapweed Centaurea stoebe L. ssp. micranthos (Gugler) Hayek Asteraceae
17 Canada thistle Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Asteraceae
18 Plumeless thistle Carduus acanthoides L. Asteraceae
19 Leafy spurge Euphorbia esula L. Euphorbiaceae
20 Narrowleaf bittercress Cardamine impatiens L. Brassicaceae
21 Purple loosestrife Lythrum salicaria L. and Lythrum virgatum L. Lythraceae
22 Common tansy Tanacetum vulgare L. Asteraceae
23 Wild parsnip Pastinaca sativa L. Apiaceae
Page Common Name Scientific Name Family
24 Common reed Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. Ex Steud. Poaceae
25 Common buckthorn Rhamnus cathartica L. Rhamnaceae
26 Glossy buckthorn Frangula alnus Mill. Rhamnaceae
27 Garlic mustard Alliaria petiolata (M. Bieb.) Cavara & Grande Brassicaceae
28 Multiflora rose Rosa multiflora Thunb. Rosaceae
Definitions of noxious weed categories.
Plant names verified and sourced from: USDA Plants Database Specially Regulated Page Common Name Scientific Name Family
29-30 Japanese barberry Berberis thunbergii DC. Berberidaceae
See note on page 56 regarding listing of Japanese barberry.
31 Knotweed, Japanese Polygonum cuspidatum Siebold & Zucc. Polygonaceae
32 Knotweed, giant Polygonum sachalinense F. Schmidt ex Maxim. Polygonaceae
See note on page 56 regarding listing of knotweeds.
33 Poison ivy - western Toxicodendron rydbergii (Small) Green Anacardiaceae
Poison ivy - common T. radicans (L.) Kuntze ssp. negundo (Greene) Gillis Anacardiaceae
See note on page 56 regarding listing of poison ivy. Dalmatian toadflax Japanese hops Garlic mustard
Page 3 5/28/2015 Minnesota Native Plants Provided for comparison Page Common Name Scientific Name Family
38 American bittersweet Celastrus scandens L. Celastraceae
39 Cherries / wild plum Prunus spp. Rosaceae
40 Common hops Humulus lupulus L. Cannabaceae
41 Cow-parsnip Heracleum lanatum Michx. Apiaceae
42 Cucumber, wild and bur Echinocystis lobata Michx. and Sicyos angulatus L. Cucurbitaceae
43 Fireweed Chamerion angustifolium (L.) Holub ssp. angustifolium Onagraceae
44 Golden alexanders Zizia aurea (L.) W.D.J. Koch Apiaceae
45 Goldenrods Solidago spp. Asteraceae
46 Native phragmites Phragmites australis ssp. americanus Saltonstall Poaceae
47 Swamp thistle Cirsium muticum Michx. Asteraceae
48 Virginia creeper / Parthenocissus spp. Vitaceae
Woodbine
49 Citations to images and web links to reference materials found on pages 49 to 53.
54 Control Calendar: Suggested timing of control options
56 Definitions of noxious weed categories. Nonnative Plants Provided for comparison Page Common Name Scientific Name Family
34 Alfalfa Medicago sativa L. Fabaceae
Vetches Coronilla varia L. and Vicia villosa Roth Fabaceae
35 Balkan catchfly Silene csereii Baumgarten Caryophyllaceae
36 Musk or nodding thistle Carduus nutans L. Asteraceae
37 Yellow rocket Barbarea vulgaris W.T. Aiton Brassicaceae
Following are plants, commonly misidentified as a species on the noxious weed list. It is important to iden-
tify and protect the native plants, while at the same time managing the State listed noxious weeds.
As for the nonnatives listed here, while these plants may be aggressive on some sites,
management is usually not a high priority. Stifh goldenrod (native) Field thistle (native) MnDOT has reproduced the images in this Weed Guide with permission from the individuals
identified as copyright owners. You may use the images individually or the entire compilation
without permission for purposes listed as “fair use” under the copyright law. Any other use may
require the photographers’ permission. In addition to obtaining photographers’ permission, a
reproduction of the compilation must acknowledge MnDOT as a contributing organization.
Plant descriptions provided for comparison:
nonnative and native Minnesota plants. Cow parsnip (native)
Page 4 5/28/2015
Prohibited: Eradicate Black swallow-wort : Cynanchum louiseae Kartesz & Gandhi
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide
Foliar Treat actively growing plants - once flowering has begun. Treat plants with enough foliage to carry a lethal dose to the root system. Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow Follow-up mowing to control seed production.
Flowering Period
Identification:
Plant: A perennial, herbaceous vine with a twining habit reaching heights of 3-8 feet.
Member of the milkweed family, the only family member in Minnesota that vines.
Leaves: Opposite, shiny and dark green foliage has a smooth (toothless) edge terminat-
ed by a pointed tip. Leaves are somewhat oval at 3-4 inches long by 2-3 inches wide.
Flower: Clustered, small (1/4 inch) dark purple flowers with five downy petals.
Bloom time is June to July.
Fruit and seed: Slender pods, taper to a point at about 1½-3 inches. Pods are described
as milkweed-like and at maturity split open to release flattened seed carried on the wind by downy, filamentous fibers.
Life History: Herbaceous vine that dies back to the ground every winter. Below ground rhizomes sprout to create a
group of stems. With more stems, plants in full sun will produce more flowers and set more seed ( up to 2,000/meter
square). Long distance wind dispersal of seeds can begin in late July. Seeds contain one to four embryos which helps to
ensure germination. Seed viability is potentially 5 years.
Habitat: Prefers full sun in upland soils. Disturbances, natural or human caused, provide an opening in which black
swallow-wort can gain a foothold. Old fields, grasslands, road or rail corridors, quarries and other disturbed areas
provide excellent habitat.
Management:
Goals should be set that aim to control seed production and stimulate competitive plant cover. Manual removal and
destruction of plants and root crowns will meet these goals.
Repeated mowing or cutting can impact plants, but will not eradicate a population. After early season mowing or
cutting, plans must be in place to monitor and repeat the process as necessary. Black swallow-wort if cut early in the
season can still produce seed that year and the goal of cutting is to eliminate seed production. If seeds are present,
clean equipment before moving ofhsite.
Prescribed fire can be used in conjunction with other management efhorts to encourage stands of native grasses that
will compete with black swallow-wort for resources. Monitoring will be necessary to control resprouting and seedlings
that germinate after burns are completed.
Herbicide applications should target plants at or beyond flowering stage. As plants reach maturity, foliar applications of
glyphosate or triclopyr ester cover enough surface area to potentially deliver a lethal dose to the root system. Timing
the application prior to pod formation may limit the production of viable seed that season. Applying herbicide to early
emerging plants with limited foliar area will likely result in roots remaining viable and plants resprouting.
Back to Index Page
Page 5 5/28/2015
Identification: Compare to Cutleaf teasel (next page) flower bracts and leaves.
Plant: Herbaceous, monocarpic perennial (plant dies after bearing fruit), first identi-
fiable as a basal rosette. At maturity 2-7 feet tall with erect, ridged and prickly
stems.
Leaves: On upright stems - opposite, stalkless (sessile), cup-forming, up to 12 inches
long by 3 inches wide, hairless, yellowish to reddish-green, lance-shaped with a
wavy edged margin. Central leaf vein forms a whitish line on top with stout prickles
below.
Flower: Many white to lavender purple flowers, 4-parted and irregular. Dense, cy-
lindrically clustered heads up to 4 inches tall and 1½ inches wide. Stiff and spiny
flower bracts may be taller than flower clusters.
Bloom time is June to October.
Fruit and seed: Each floret or small flower produces one capsule containing a grayish-brown, slightly hairy seed.
Life History: During the rosette stage, which may extend beyond one season, the plant creates a substantial tap root, up
to 24 inches long by 1 inch wide at the crown.
Each flower head can produce upwards of 2000 seeds with germination success of 30-80%. Seed on immature heads
may still ripen. Seed is viable for approximately two years with typical dispersal up to 50 feet. Seed may be transported
longer distances via water.
Habitat: Disturbed, open sunny site with moist to dry soils. Common on roadsides and disturbed areas.
Management:
Cutting of roots below ground and removal of as much as possible will limit sprouting. Accomplish cutting and removal
of either life stage with tools such as dandelion pullers or a sharp shovel.
Mowing of the rosette stage does not kill the plant, however mowing of the flowering stalks can disrupt seed produc-
tion. After mowing or cutting of flowering plants monitor for new flower heads. Cut flower heads should be disposed of
onsite or contained (e.g., bagged) and removed to an approved facility.
Prescribed fire can be used to increase competition from native warm season grasses, if they are present. Fire can also
be used in combination with follow-up herbicide treatments. Keep in mind, high density infestations (large numbers of
plants) will not burn well.
Herbicides such as metsulfuron methyl, clopyralid, triclopyr or 2,4-D amine are broadleaf specific herbicides that work
on teasel at the rosette stage. Glyphosate is applicable but care must be exercised since it is not broadleaf specific.
Common teasel : Dipsacus fullonum L. Prohibited: Eradicate
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide Foliar
Cut stem Not applicable.
Mow Mowing is not recommended: mowing does not kill the plant and flower-ing may still occur. Seed dispersal can occur if mature plants are mowed. Mower scalping creates a good seed bed.
Don’t mow
Flowering Period Bracts may be longer than flower head
Back to Index Page
Page 6 5/28/2015
Identification: Compare to common teasel (previous page) flower bracts and leaf shape.
Plant: Herbaceous, monocarpic perennial (plant dies after bearing fruit), first identifiable as a ba-
sal rosette. Matures to 2-7 feet tall with erect, ridged and prickly stems.
Leaves: On upright stems - opposite, stalkless (sessile), cup-forming, up to 12 inches long by 3
inches wide, hairless, lance-shaped, lobed with sinuses cut almost to the midrib. Prominent leaf
vein with stout prickles below.
Flower: Many white to lavender purple flowers, 4-parted and irregular. Dense, cylindrically clus-
tered heads up to 4 inches tall and 1½ inches wide. Spiny, stifh flower bracts are not taller than
the flower cluster.
Bloom time is July to September.
Fruit and seed: Each floret or small flower produces one capsule containing a grayish-brown, slightly hairy seed.
Life History: During the rosette stage, which may extend beyond one season, the plant creates a substantial tap root, up
to 24 inches long by 1 inch wide at the crown.
Each flower head can produce upwards of 2000 seeds with germination success of 30-80%. Seed on immature heads
may reach viability. Seed is viable for approximately 2 years with typical dispersal up to 50 feet. Seed may be transport-
ed longer distances via water.
Habitat: Disturbed, open sunny site with moist to dry soils. Common on roadsides and disturbed areas.
Management:
Cutting of roots below ground and removal of as much as possible will limit sprouting. Accomplish cutting and removal
of either life stage with tools such as dandelion pullers or a sharp shovel.
Mowing of the rosette stage does not kill the plant, however mowing of the flowering stalks can disrupt seed produc-
tion. After mowing or cutting of flowering plants monitor for new flower heads. Cut flower heads should be disposed of
onsite or contained (e.g., bagged) and removed to an approved facility.
Prescribed fire can be used to increase competition from native warm season grasses, if they are present. Fire can also
be used in combination with follow-up herbicide treatments. Keep in mind, high density infestations (large numbers of
plants) will not burn well.
Herbicides such as metsulfuron methyl, clopyralid, triclopyr or 2,4-D amine are broadleaf specific herbicides that work
on teasel at the rosette stage. Glyphosate is applicable but care must be exercised since it is not broadleaf specific.
Prohibited: Eradicate Cutleaf teasel : Dipsacus laciniatus L.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide Foliar
Cut stem Not applicable.
Mow Mowing is not recommended: mowing does not kill the plant and flower-ing may still occur. Seed dispersal can occur if mature plants are mowed. Mower scalping creates a good seed bed.
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Clustered flower and
short bracts Lobed or cut leaves
Left: teasel flow-
ering on short
stems after be-
ing mowed.
Right: Prickles
underside of
leaf.
Back to Index Page
Page 7 5/28/2015
Prohibited: Eradicate Dalmatian toadflax : Linaria dalmatica (L.) Mill.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn Fire does not kill rhizomes. Result is likely an increased stem count.
Herbicide
Foliar
Cut stem
Mow Mowing can prevent seed production, but forces vegetative reproduction.
Therefore, after mowing, monitoring and repeating the process is likely necessary. Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Identification: Compare to introduced Balkan catchfly (Silene csereii). See page 35.
Plant: A short-lived herbaceous perennial up to 4 feet tall. Base may be woody and
plant is often branched. Waxy stems and leaves have a bluish-gray color.
Leaves: Alternate leaves 1-3 inch in length clasp stems, are wider and more heart-
shaped than similarly flowered butter-and-eggs (Linaria vulgaris).
Flower: Erect, spike-like racemes of yellow flowers with orangey center markings.
Flowers are 1-1½ inches long with slender spurs extending downward from the back.
Bloom time is May to September.
Fruit and Seed: On average 140-250 winged seeds are contained in ½ inch long pods.
Life History: Reproduction is primarily by seed that is viable in the seedbank up to 10
years, but the plant also forms colonies via vegetative reproduction from roots.
Habitat: Rapidly colonizes disturbed sites such as roadsides, rail right-of-way, and
other locations including cultivated ground. Prefers a drier site in coarse, well-
drained soils.
Management: Recommendation - identify and treat early.
Eradication is the goal in Minnesota; therefore, biological control is not a compatible option at this time.
Prescribed fire can set plants back and drain some energy while mowing can prevent or delay seed production. Howev-
er, both stimulate vegetative reproduction, thus potentially increasing stem counts. Monitor the infestation and consid-
er follow-up treatments of periodic mowing and / or herbicide treatments.
Manual methods including, cutting, hand pulling or tillage if done repeatedly and in conjunction with other treatments
may control infestations. Grazers eat the flowers, but may also carry the seeds.
Herbicide formulations of chlorsulfuron, dicamba, imazapic or picloram have had reported success. Also, combinations
of picloram and chlorsulfuron or imazapic and chlorsulfuron or diflufenzopyr and picloram and chlorsulfuron are being
used in some areas. Re-treatment is likely necessary.
Back to Index Page
Below center: early season
regrowth.
Page 8 5/28/2015
Prohibited: Eradicate Giant hogweed : Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Levier
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide
Foliar Before the plant flowers. Treat rosettes
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Identification: Compare to native cow-parsnip (Heracleum lanatum). See page 41.
Plant: Herbaceous, biennial giant at 10-15 feet tall (potentially 20 feet). When flowering the sec-
ond year, 2-4 inch diameter hollow stalks are mottled reddish-purple with sturdy bristles.
Leaves: Alternate, up to 5 feet across, compound leaves with 3 deeply incised (cut) leaflets which
may be further divided. The spotted leaf stalks, underside of leaves and stems are covered with
coarse white hairs.
Flower: Large, flat umbels of small white florets create massive displays up to 2½ feet in diameter.
Bloom time is June to July.
Fruit and Seed: Seed is large, flattened, with visible brown resin canals.
Life History: A single flower head can produce upwards of 1500 seeds. First season basal rosette
foliage can be 1-5 feet across with flower stalks typically appearing in the second season. When plants die a large bare
patch of soil results which creates a good seed bed and potential erosion problems.
Habitat: Moist soils of woodlands and riparian zones with partial shade as found on woodland edges.
Management: Caution! Use protective clothing, goggles or face mask, contact with bristles (stifh hairs) or sap of plants
(i.e., phyto) can cause severe blistering and swelling (i.e., dermatitis) when combined with exposure to sunlight
(i.e., photo), phytophotodermatitis.
Manual methods including cutting and removal by hand are efhective on small infestations. The focus of this method is
to prevent seed production. Plants should be disposed of onsite or contained (e.g., bagged) and removed to an ap-
proved facility. Root systems can be weakened by repeated cutting but consider removal for best results. After cutting,
monitor sites for follow-up treatment needs.
Herbicide applications of triclopyr or glyphosate are efhective when applied early season to basal rosettes. If manual
methods such as cutting are used early in the season, plan on returning to chemically treat re-sprouts.
Cut and remove roots and
or seeds by hand for disposal.
Back to Index Page
Page 9 5/28/2015
Prohibited: Eradicate Grecian foxglove : Digitalis lanata Ehrh.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide
Foliar
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Identification:
Plant: Herbaceous, perennial beginning its first year as a basal rosette with a single flow-
ering stalk from 2-5 feet tall in subsequent years.
Leaves: Alternate, smooth, stalk-less upper leaves with toothless edges are narrow (lance
-shaped). Basal leaves are more oval with rounded tips and are densely woolly.
Flower: Many tubular flowers attached to a central stalk (raceme) with bloom progres-
sion from the bottom to the top of the stalk. Flowers have a brown or purple veined up-
per hood and a creamy-white, elongated lower lip.
Bloom time is June to July.
Fruit and seed: Seed capsules are 2-parted and split to release tiny reddish-brown seed
with 3-4 year viability. The hook (stifh, persistent style of the flower) on the seed pods are
easily caught on clothing or fur and transported to new locations.
Life History: A perennial plant that blooms following its first year as a basal rosette. Each flower produces numerous
seeds that are viable for up to 4 years. Small wingless seeds are easily transported by birds, animals, human activity as
well as wind and water.
Habitat: Minnesota sites are in full sun to partial shade along roads, woodland edges and in open fields.
Management: Caution! Grecian foxglove contains toxins (cardiac glycosides) that potentially can be absorbed through
the skin. These compounds are harmful to livestock and humans. Do not pull or handle this plant without protective
clothing, in particular, rubber gloves and long sleeves are required.
Repeated mowing or cutting to prevent flowering throughout the year and over several years can drain plants of energy
and help control an infestation. Since flowering can occur on mowed, short stems follow-up treatments with herbicide
may be necessary.
Prescribed fire, there is no research information available at this time.
Herbicide applications in May and again in July are beneficial to knock down plants be-
fore flowering can occur. A fall application is also recommended to kill basal rosettes
that were missed earlier or that developed during the season. Metsulfuron-methyl for-
mulations are recommended for good control.
Back to Index Page
Page 10 5/28/2015
Prohibited: Eradicate Japanese hops : Humulus japonicus Siebold & Zucc.
Identification: Compare to native cucumbers, wild and bur (Echinocystis lobata and Sicyos angulatus). See page 42.
Compare to native common hops (Humulus lupulus). See page 40.
Compare to native Virginia creeper/woodbine (Parthenocissus spp.). See page 48.
Plant: Herbaceous, annual vine trailing on the ground or climbing vegetation and infrastructure. Stems are covered with
downward pointing prickles.
Leaves: Opposite, 2-5 inches long and almost as wide, with 5-7 (maybe 9) palmate lobes. Compare to common hops:
typically 3-lobed occasionally 5. Japanese hops leaves are rough and edges are toothed. Two bracts (stipules) are at leaf
stalk bases and the leaf stalks (petioles) are as long or longer than the leaves.
Flower: Male flowers and female flowers are on separate plants (dioecious). Flowers are small and greenish to reddish,
not showy. Male flowers are branched clusters (panicles) while the female flowers are drooping structures that are ra-
ther plump and composed of overlapping reddish bracts or scales (hops).
Bloom time is July into August.
Fruit and Seed: Single flattened seeds from each female flower. Each inflorescence produces several seeds that mature
in September.
Life History: An annual plant germinating early spring and growing quickly as summer progresses. Vines quickly cover
small trees and shrubs weighing them down to the point of breakage and limiting their sunlight. Japanese hops flower
in July-August, seeds mature in September. Soon after a killing frost, fragile vines fall apart dispersing their seed.
Habitat: Tolerant of disturbed roadside conditions if there is moist soil. Species prefers conditions found in riparian
areas including full sunlight and exposed soils that are moist and rich.
Management: Caution! Stem prickles are known to irritate the skin, long clothing and gloves are recommended.
Manual methods including cutting and pulling, while labor intensive, can be successful on small infestations. Efhorts
should be focused on early season work when plants are small and limited entanglement with surrounding vegetation or
structures has occurred.
If the area is accessible to mowers and vines have limited structure for climbing, such as trees and fences, then mowing
is an efhective method to control maturity and seed production.
Herbicides include pre-emergent and post-emergent applications. Both are useful since this is an annual plant with
prolific seed production capabilities. Pre-emergent should be applied prior to the growing season beginning in late
March or early April. Once germination has occurred a switch to foliar applications should be made in an efhort to keep
plants from maturing and producing seed.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide
Post-emerge
Pre-emerge
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Below left: Male flower structure.
Below right: Female flower structure.
Back to Index Page
Below: Stem prickles
Page 11 5/28/2015
Identification: Compare to native American bittersweet (Celastrus scandens). See page 38.
Plant: Woody, twining, perennial vines up to 60 feet long, reaches tree tops and covers fenc-
es. Kills vegetation, especially trees and shrubs, either by shading, strangling or sheer weight
of vines causing breakage. Stem diameters of 4 inches documented in Minnesota.
Leaves: Alternate, finely-toothed, elliptical and shiny. Nearly as wide as long at 2-5 inches.
Flower: Small, inconspicuous, greenish flowers clumped in the leaf axils along the stem.
Compare the white pollen on male flowers to the yellowish pollen on American bittersweet
flowers. Also, American bittersweet flowers are similar in size and color but are found termi-
nal on vine branches (on the ends).
Bloom time is May to June.
Fruit and Seed: Not only terminal, but along the vine in leaf axils are yellowish, 3-parted capsules enclosing orange-
colored, 3-parted, berry-like arils. Each aril contains 1-2 seeds. There are separate fruiting (female) and non-fruiting
(male) plants (dioecious). American bittersweet’s 3-parted fruit is more red, the 3-parted capsule is more orange and
fruits are terminal on the vine branches (on the ends).
Life History: Vegetative reproduction occurs from below-ground rhizomes, above-ground stolons and suckering of roots.
Birds will eat the fruits (arils) during the winter and disperse the seeds. Seeds germinate late spring.
Habitat: Readily invades disturbed, open, sunny sites, yet Oriental bittersweet is moderately tolerant of shade allowing it
to grow in open woodlands.
Management:
Prescribed fire research has shown that basal sprouting is stimulated and stand density increases dramatically.
Cutting of stems can be used to kill above ground portions of plants especially if the infestation is covering large areas or
is climbing high into forest canopy. Combine with herbicide applications for best results. If vines are fruiting, plants
should be disposed of onsite or contained (e.g., bagged) and removed to an approved facility.
Herbicides that act systemically such as formulations of triclopyr or glyphosate can be applied as foliar, basal bark or cut
stem applications. Foliar applications are reserved for easy to reach foliage, re-sprouting or along fence lines. Once foli-
age is out of reach, application to cut stems or basal bark will yield the best results.
Prohibited: Eradicate Oriental bittersweet : Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn Burning is not recommended
Basal Bark
Herbicide
Foliar
Cut stem
Mow Mowing is not recommended.
Don’t mow
Flowering Period Above: location of fruit is in leaf axils (where leaf attaches to stem).
Left above: greenish, female flower.
Left below: greenish male flower, note
the white pollen grains on the anthers of
the upper flower.
Back to Index Page
Page 12 5/28/2015
Prohibited: Eradicate Palmer amaranth : Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn Use fire to improve environment for competing native plant community.
Herbicide
Post-emerge
Pre-emerge
Mow If seed present, do not mow.
Don’t mow Follow-up mowing to control seed production.
Flowering Period
Identification: Palmer amaranth is one of several native pigweeds and is native to south-
western deserts of the United States. Link: Pigweed Identification, a pictorial guide.
Plant: Herbaceous, annual plant, a potential growth rate of 2-3 inches per day. Plants
attain heights of 6-8 feet, potentially 10 feet. Stems are stout, up to 2 inches thick and
without hairs (smooth). Top-view of plants as foliage develops resembles a poinsettia.
Leaves: Alternate, green color, some plants with white V-shaped markings on leaves.
Elliptical to diamond-shaped leaf blades terminated by a small spine. Petioles up to 2-3
times longer than leaves, image at right.
Flower: Plants are dioecious with male and female flowers on separate plants. Flowers
are not showy, but flower spikes are significant and useful in positive identification.
Bloom time is June to Sept. Flowers can occur 8 weeks post-emergence to end of season.
Fruit and seed: Seeds are dark colored and extremely small. Research shows pigweeds including palmer amaranth can
produce upwards of 250,000 or more seeds per plant.
Life History: Seedling emergence can occur throughout the growing season; thus, flowering and seed set can persist late
into the season. Monitoring is a necessary activity for control efhorts. Seeds germinate in spring if within an inch of soil
surface. Research on pigweeds suggests if seed is buried deeper than 3 inches viability is decreased annually with a po-
tential longevity of approximately 3 years. Research on redroot pigweed (A. retroflexus) and waterhemp (A. rudis) sug-
gests longevity can be as short as 3-4 years in Mississippi/Illinois or as long as 12 years in Nebraska.
Habitat: Native habitat is desert climate, species performs well during heat of summer. Pigweeds are shade intolerant.
Management: Preventing establishment is key. Proper identification and frequent scouting to limit seed production.
Repeated mowing or cutting are not efhective at controlling Palmer amaranth infestations. Continue monitoring and
consider alternative methods such as cultivation, manual methods like hand-pulling or herbicide applications.
Prescribed fire has the potential to kill seedlings and drain energy from maturing plants, but fire should be considered as
a tool to strengthen the health and competitive advantage of the desirable plant community.
Biotypes have shown resistance to herbicides in groups 2, 3, 5, 9 and 27 (Group number - check herbicide labels).
Yet, herbicide applications both pre- and post- emergent are possible. Roger Becker (Univ. of MN, Agronomist) provid-
ed the following comment: “There are many products that will control the pigweed group across the difherent labeled
sites, but the challenge will be knowing what the resistance of the particular biotype is that gets here (Minnesota), if at
all. Many of the standard ROW (right-of-way) broadleaf materials will control non-resistant palmer.”
Useful herbicides in group 4 include 2,4-D, aminocyclopyrachlor, aminopyralid, clopyralid, and dicamba. Group 2 herbi-
cides include imazapyr, imazapic, metsulfuron and sulfometuron. Nonselective glyphosate, group 9 and glufosinate,
group 10 can be used depending on crop tolerance traits or desired vegetation outcomes for non-cropland sites.
Back to Index Page
Above: male plants have soft flower spikes, female
flower spikes have sharp bracts (below - upper right).
Below: poinsettia-like foliage, white V-shaped markings
(inset), and thick stems.
For best results,
treat plants when they are small,
under 1 foot tall.
As plants mature,
use approved higher rates of
herbicides.
White petiole bent back
over a green leaf blade.
Page 13 5/28/2015
A member of the knapweeds, genus Centaurea.
Identification:
Plant: Herbaceous, annual with heights of 6 to 36 inches. Plants start as a biennial or winter annual with a basal rosette
the first season. Mature plants are described as bushy with a grayish or bluish cast to otherwise green color.
Leaves: Basal leaves are lobed, dandelion-like at about 8 inches. Basal leaves may not persist as plants bolt to flower.
Stem leaves are alternate, narrow to oblong and an extended leaf attachment provides a winged appearance to stems.
Flower: Approximately 1 inch long flowers with substantial ¾ inch yellowish spines emanating from bracts beneath
flowers. Flowers are terminal and solitary on stems.
Bloom time is June to August.
Fruit and Seed: Each terminal flower produces between 35 to 80 plumeless or plumed seeds.
Life History: Yellow starthistle is a strong invader. Due to a lack of tufting on some seeds, reliance is on animals and hu-
mans for movement any distance from parent plants.
Habitat: Periods of summer drought favor infestations on disturbed sites such as roadsides. Also an invader of prairies,
fields, woodlands and pastures where spines can cause injury to grazing animals.
Management: Caution! Gloves and long sleeves are recommended. Knapweeds have chemical and in some species
physical defenses. These are known skin irritants.
Limit movement of seed on grazing animals, mowing equipment and vehicles.
Eradication is the goal in Minnesota; therefore, biological control is not a compatible option at this time.
Mowing, monitor infestations and time mowing at early flowering stages, soon after spine development.
Herbicide formulations of aminopyralid, clopyralid or picloram applied as foliar applications early in the growing season
appear to be most efhective.
Prohibited: Eradicate Yellow starthistle : Centaurea solstitialis L.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide
Foliar
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Back to Index Page
Page 14 5/28/2015
Prohibited: Eradicate Brown knapweed : Centaurea jacea L.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide
Foliar Foliar treatments target rosettes.
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Identification: Compare to meadow knapweed and spotted knapweed. Pages 15 and 16.
These 3 plants fall in what is often referred to as the knapweed complex. Suggestion is to
concentrate on what is spotted knapweed - otherwise leave identification to a botanist.
Compare to nonnatives alfalfa and vetches. See page 34.
Plant: Herbaceous perennial reaching heights of 8 to 32 inches. Typically, multi branched
with solitary, terminal disk flowers.
Leaves: Simple, alternate , green foliage typically has a wavy, entire margin (no lobes on
leaf edge). Basal leaves or lower ⅓ of the plant may have lobes or teeth near the base of
the lance-shaped leaf and are larger than the lance-shaped leaves above.
Key difference: Spotted knapweed’s basal foliage is grayish-green with deep sinuses,
creating a strongly, pinnately lobed leaf up to 6 inches long.
Flower: Solitary, terminal to branches, purplish disk flowers that are surrounded by 5-
petaled florets. Bracts that cover the bulb-like bases of flowers are 2-parted with the
bottom of bracts green striped while upper portions are brown with a transparent, papery edge that may be toothed.
Compare knapweed bract tips;
meadow knapweed - long fringe; spotted knapweed - dark tip, short fringe; brown knapweed - brown, tan papery edge.
Bloom time is June to September.
Fruit and seed: A small (less than ⅛ inch) dry, slightly hairy seed. A typical achene (seed) of the Asteraceae family but
there is no fuzz or plume to carry it on the wind.
Life History: Most reproduction is advanced by seed which is moved by water, animals, and birds. But, humans are
probably the most significant transporters of seed on farm and construction equipment, recreational vehicles, as well as
on personal automobiles, clothes and other recreational gear.
Habitat: In contrast to meadow knapweed’s preference towards moist sites, brown knapweed prefers drier sites such as
old fields, road and rail right-of ways, or similar disturbed areas.
Management: Caution! Gloves and long sleeves are recommended. Knapweeds are known skin irritants.
Hand pulling or digging can be an efhective step when coupled with chemical treatments. Plants should be disposed of
onsite or contained (e.g., bagged) and removed to an approved facility. Repeated mowing or cutting can reduce seed
production, but sites must be monitored and applications likely repeated or followed up with herbicide treatments.
Prescribed fire can be used to encourage stands of native grasses that will compete with knapweeds. However, moni-
toring is needed to check for knapweed germination in bare soil soon after burns are completed.
Herbicide foliar applications with formulations including aminopyralid, clopyralid, or picloram have proven efhective in
controlling knapweeds.
Synonyms:
C. nigra, and C. nigrescens plus a
nothospecies, C. ×moncktonii
Back to Index Page
Page 15 5/28/2015
Prohibited: Eradicate Meadow knapweed : Centaurea x moncktonii C. E. Britton
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide
Foliar Foliar treatments target rosettes.
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Synonyms: C. pratensis Thuill., C. debeauxii Godron & Grenier subsp. thuillieri Dostál, C. jacea x nigra
Identification: Compare to brown knapweed and spotted knapweed. Pages 14 and 16.
These 3 plants fall in what is often referred to as the knapweed complex. Suggestion is to
concentrate on what is spotted knapweed - otherwise leave identification to a botanist.
Compare to nonnatives alfalfa and vetches. See page 34.
Plant: Herbaceous perennial with multiple stems attaining 20 to 40 inches in height from a
woody root crown.
Leaves: Simple, alternate, dark green color, basal leaves / lower stem leaves are un-lobed
(maybe shallow lobes, or toothed) and up to 6 inches long by 1 inch wide. Farther up the
stem, leaves are small and linear.
Key difference: Spotted knapweed’s basal foliage is grayish-green with deep sinuses,
creating a strongly, pinnately lobed leaf up to 6 inches long.
Flower: Pink to purple, ¾ inch wide flowers are solitary and terminal to stems. Bracts be-
neath flower heads are light brown, fringed (appearing insect-like) becoming coppery and shiny at maturity.
Compare knapweed bract tips;
meadow knapweed - long fringe; spotted knapweed - dark tip, short fringe; brown knapweed - brown, tan papery edge.
Bloom time is June to September.
Fruit and seed: Small (⅛ inch) light brown seeds are topped by a small line of short hairs.
Life History: Seed is transported by water, vehicles, animals and in hay. Cuttings from roots can sprout.
Habitat: Prefers moist soil types found along water, wet grasslands or meadows, irrigation ditches, roadsides and open-
ings in woodlands.
Management: Caution! Gloves and long sleeves are recommended. Knapweeds have chemical and in some species
physical defenses. These are known skin irritants.
Hand pulling or digging while time consuming can be an efhective step when coupled with chemical treatments. Plants
should be disposed of onsite or contained (e.g., bagged) and removed to an approved facility. Repeated mowing or
cutting can reduce seed production, but sites must be monitored and applications likely repeated and followed up with
herbicide treatments.
Prescribed fire can be used to encourage stands of native grasses that will compete with knapweeds. However, moni-
toring is needed to check for knapweed germination in bare soil soon after burns are completed.
Herbicide foliar applications with formulations including aminopyralid, clopyralid, or picloram have proven efhective in
controlling knapweeds.
Back to Index Page
Page 16 5/28/2015
Identification: Compare to brown knapweed and meadow knapweed. See pages 14 and 15.
These 3 plants fall in what is often referred to as the knapweed complex.
Suggestion is to concentrate on what is spotted knapweed - otherwise
leave identification to a botanist.
Compare to nonnatives alfalfa and vetches. See page 34.
Plant: Herbaceous, short-lived perennial living 1-4 years. Initial stage is a
rosette before the plant produces 1-6 stems ranging from 1-4 feet tall.
Leaves: Simple, alternate, grayish-green basal rosette leaves up to 6 inch-
es long have deep sinuses. Alternate leaves on mature stems vary from
smaller, 1-3 inch, versions of the basal leaves to very small linear leaves
near the top.
Key difference: meadow / brown knapweed - green leaves, lacking lobes.
Flower: Strongly resemble the flowers of thistles in their pink to purple color (rarely white) and multi-parted texture.
Below the petals, flowers are held together by bracts that are stifh and tipped with darkened hairs (see image above).
Compare knapweed bract tips;
meadow knapweed - long fringe; spotted knapweed - dark tip, short fringe; brown knapweed - brown, tan papery edge.
Bloom time is July to September.
Fruits and Seed: Small (⅛ inch long), brownish, tufted, seeds.
Life History: Allelopathic properties (chemicals exuded by the plant) can suppress the germination of seeds of other
plants nearby. Plant removal can lead to bare patches of soil subject to erosion.
Seeds are the primary means of reproduction and a mature plant produces thousands of seeds that may remain viable
for up to 5 years. Wind disperses seeds short distances while animal and human activity disperse it far and wide.
Habitat: In contrast to meadow knapweed’s preference to moist sites, spotted knapweed prefers disturbed sites with
gravely or sandy dry soils. Roadsides, abandoned lots, old fields and gravel pits are habitat that support infestations.
Management: Caution! Gloves and long sleeves are recommended. Knapweeds are known skin irritants.
Biological controls approved for use in Minnesota are seedhead weevils (Larinus minutus and L. obtusus) and a root-
boring weevil (Cyphocleonus achates). Weevils are collected July through September and released on infestation sites
larger than 1/3 acre. When a combination of seedhead and root boring weevils work together, infestations can be re-
duced over a number of years.
While cutting, mowing and prescribed fire can encourage competition from native grasses and help reduce the extent
of an infestation they will likely not eradicate it. Early spring prescribed fire is compatible with biological control.
Herbicide formulations including aminopyralid, clopyralid, glyphosate, imazapyr, aminocyclopyrachlor or picloram have
demonstrated control with foliar applications.
Prohibited: Control Spotted knapweed : Centaurea stoebe L. ssp. micranthos (Gugler) Hayek
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide Foliar Foliar treatments target rosettes.
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Above: basal rosette,
Middle right:
basal foliage,
Middle Left: linear foli-
age near top of plant,
Bottom right: flowers.
Compare flower similarities to Canada thistle, page 16.
Back to Index Page
Again, caution!
Knapweeds have chemical
and in some species physical
defenses. These chemical
and physical defenses are
known skin irritants.
Page 17 5/28/2015
Identification: Compare to Minnesota native swamp thistle (Cirsium muticum). See page 47.
Compare to nonnative musk thistle (Carduus nutans). See page 36.
Compare to nonnatives alfalfa and vetches. See page 34.
Compare flower similarities to spotted knapweed, page 16.
Plant: Herbaceous, perennial with grooved, non-spiny, hairy and typically upright stems to
a height of 2-6+ feet tall.
Leaves: Alternate, simple, pinnately lobed leaves that are generally lance-shaped. The
leaves are irregularly lobed, with toothed, spiny edges. The leaves are stalkless (sessile)
and at maturity are downy or hairy on the underside.
Flower: Male and female (dioecious) ¾ inch flowers occur singly on the end of branches.
The disk or composite inflorescence is comprised of numerous purple to pinkish small flo-
rets. Bracts below the inflorescence do not have spines on the tips.
Bloom time is June to October.
Fruit and Seed: Tufted light brown seeds are easily dispersed by wind. Do not mow after seed has developed as this
strongly aids seed dispersal.
Life History: Reproduction can occur from seed, root cuttings and from rhizomes. Clonal stands are common and
spread can be significant from roots that can grow horizontally 10-12 feet per year.
Habitat: A successful inhabitant of disturbed areas such as roadsides and old fields but will also move into open wood-
lands and prairies. This species is also found where water levels fluctuate such as in wet meadows, along stream banks
and ditches.
Management:
A biological control is under investigation, stem-mining weevil (Ceutorhynchus litura). This insect is available from com-
mercial vendors and is acceptable for distribution in Minnesota.
Cutting or mowing should target plants that are approximately 3 inches tall and the process must be repeated through-
out the season to maintain the plants at 3 inches or less in height. Continuing this approach for several years can drain
the plants of reserves.
Repeated prescribed fire can be used to encourage stands of native grasses that will outcompete thistle. However,
monitoring is needed to check for thistle that germinates in bare soil soon after burns are completed.
Herbicide foliar sprays with formulations of clopyralid, aminopyralid, or metsulfuron-methyl. These foliar applications
are made as the plants bolt, prior to flower set, or in late summer/early autumn to rosettes.
Canada thistle : Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide Foliar
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Prohibited: Control
Back to Index Page
Page 18 5/28/2015
Identification: Compare to Minnesota native swamp thistle (Cirsium muticum). See page 47.
Compare to nonnative musk thistle (Carduus nutans). See page 36.
Compare to nonnatives alfalfa and vetches. See page 34.
Plant: Herbaceous, biennial reaching heights of 1-4 feet. Unlike native thistles, the stems
of plumeless thistle are winged and spiny.
Leaves: Edges of rosette leaves are wavy with yellowish spines. Stem leaves are alter-
nate, attached directly to stems and typically have hairs on bottoms along mid-veins.
Flower: Numerous stem branches support terminal, single, composite flowers that are ½
to 1½ inches wide. Linear or narrow bracts with short spines are found immediately be-
low pink to purple flowers.
Bloom time is July to October.
Fruit and Seed: Small seeds approximately 1/16 inch long described as straw colored and tufted with fibers on the ter-
minal end. The fibers aid in wind dispersal.
Life History: Reproduction is by seed and seeding is prolific building a large seed bank in a short period of time. Thus,
control measures should focus on eliminating seed production and exhaustion of seed banks. Movement is greatly in-
creased by animal and/or human activities such as mowing or haying.
It is reported that musk thistle (Carduus nutans) and plumeless thistle hybridize.
Habitat: Found on dry to moist soils in pastures, woodlands, waste areas, along roadsides, ditches and stream banks.
Management:
Cutting taproots 1-2 inches below ground is efhective but time consuming for large numbers of plants. Mowing should
be timed at flower bud stage to prevent seed production and should be repeated 2-3 times per season to be efhective.
Avoid spreading seed with hay or straw and with mowing and vehicle movement through infestations.
Prescribed fire can be used to encourage stands of native grasses that will outcompete thistle. However, monitoring is
needed to check for thistle that germinates in bare soil soon after burns are completed.
Herbicide applications timed at the early bolting phase are foliar applications of 2,4-D ester or dicamba formulations.
For foliar applications at the budding to flower stage or fall applications to basal rosettes turn to
formulations of aminopyralid, clopyralid, metsulfuron-methyl or triclopyr.
Prohibited: Control Plumeless thistle : Carduus acanthoides L.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide
Foliar
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Back to Index Page
Page 19 5/28/2015
Identification: Similar to invasive cypress spurge (E. cyparissias). Due to bloom period overlap
confused with introduced yellow rocket (Barbarea vulgaris). Compare to yellow rocket, page 37.
Plant: Herbaceous, perennial to 3 feet tall. Cypress spurge is 8-14 inches tall. Broken stems of
many Euphorbia spp. produce a milky sap (latex) that is a good identification characteristic.
Leaves: Alternate, linear to lance-like, bluish-green and 1-4 inches in length. Cypress spurge
leaves are approximately 1 inch in length, alternate or whorled and narrower than leafy spurge
leaves.
Flower: There are no petals or sepals on the small yellowish-green flowers. Upper stem leaves
or bracts develop just below flowers and are yellow-green in color providing the appearance of
yellowish petaled flowers. The bracts develop before the true flowers.
Bloom time is May to August.
Fruit and Seed: Three-celled capsules that expel seeds up to 20 feet. Each cell contains a seed.
Life History: Leafy and cypress spurge reproduction can be vegetative from buds on roots, rhizomes and root cuttings.
The ability to reproduce vegetatively makes these plants difficult to control. Deep roots to 21 feet and extensive hori-
zontal roots allow plants to store vast reserves providing the ability to recover after removal attempts. Seed production
is significant with plants producing on average 140 seeds per stem. Seeds can remain viable in the soil up to 8 years.
Habitat: Leafy and cypress spurge readily invade dry sites in full sun, but tolerance of a range of conditions allows them
to invade moist, rich soils as well.
Management: Caution! Some people are sensitive to the sap of spurges and develop skin rashes after pulling or han-
dling plants, so gloves and long clothing are recommended. The milky sap is toxic to cattle and horses.
Biological controls are available for controlling leafy spurge. Flea beetles (Aphthona lacertosa) are widely used in Min-
nesota. Flea beetles are collected late May to early June and released on infested sites larger than 1/3 acre. Additional-
ly in Minnesota, stem and root boring beetles (Oberea erythrocephala) provide some control. Early spring prescribed
fire is compatible with biological control on this plant species.
Cutting or mowing if timed before flower development can reduce or limit seed production. Grazing goats and sheep
can efhectively limit the spread of infestations.
Prescribed fire is another tool that helps drain plants of reserve energy. Control of spurges typically requires a multi-
tactic approach - eliminate or reduce seeding, exhaust seed banks, and drain reserves of existing plants while
attempting to encourage native plants for competitive cover. So, consider spring mowing or fire with a fall application
of imazapic.
Herbicide controls are applied as foliar applications and usually involve formulations of aminocyclopyrachlor,
picloram, 2,4-D, glyphosate,
dicamba, or imazapic. Re-
peated applications are likely
necessary.
Leafy spurge : Euphorbia esula L.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide Foliar
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Left: Leafy spurge
Right: Cypress spurge. Above: Flower and bracts.
Right: Cut stem exuding
white latex.
Prohibited: Control
Back to Index Page
Squares = ¼ inch.
Page 20 5/28/2015
Identification:
Plant: Herbaceous, annual or biennial starting its first season as a basal rosette and in the second season sending up a
smooth flower stem to approximately two feet in height.
Leaves: Basal rosette leaves are pinnately compound with 3-11 round lobed leaflets. Alternate leaves on flowering
stems, while still pinnately compound, likely will not have rounded lobes but 6-20 lance or arrowhead shaped leaflets.
Edges of flowering stem leaves may be smooth or sharply toothed.
An important difherentiation from other plants can be found at the point where leaves attach to stems,
look for narrow pointed ears or auricles that grasp and may extend beyond stems.
Flower: Small (0.1 inch), white 4-parted flowers. White petals may not be present.
Bloom time is May to August.
Fruit and Seed: Similar to other mustard family members, seed pods are long (0.6 - 0.8 inch) and slender. Seed ripens
from May to September and is dispersed short distances from plants.
Life History: Reproduction is by seed. Seed pods average 10-24 seeds and individual plants can produce thousands of
seeds. Movement of seeds is aided by water, animals and human activities.
Habitat: Moist woodlands, forested areas and on margins of thickets. River bottom sites, streambanks and other moist
areas are very good habitat and provide avenues for dispersal. This species can tolerate a variety of conditions and has
been reported in areas such as roadsides, vacant lots, as well as yards and gardens.
Management: Recommendations at this time focus on hand pulling infestations. Good advice from the Minnesota De-
partment of Agriculture in reference to controlling narrowleaf bittercress;
“Following guidelines for controlling other biennial mustards such as garlic mustard, Alliaria petiolata, may be helpful.”
Hand pulling timed to prevent flower and/or seed production is recommended. Subsequent re-treatments will be re-
quired due to germination and recruitment from the seedbank. If flowers or seed pods are present, plants should be
disposed of onsite or contained (e.g., bagged) and removed to an approved facility. If infestations are large or dense,
consider the need for ground cover to prevent erosion and to provide competing vegetation.
Prescribed fire in spring to top-kill basal rosettes and seedlings. Follow-up treatment with herbicide is imperative after
seedling germination to further slow growth of infestations.
Herbicide applications to foliage with formulations of triclopyr, metsulfuron-methyl, or imazapic.
Use glyphosate or 2,4-D after native plants have entered dormancy and narrowleaf bittercress is still active.
Prohibited: Control Narrowleaf bittercress : Cardamine impatiens L.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide Foliar
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Back to Index Page
Page 21 5/28/2015
Compare to native fireweed (Chamerion angustifolium). See page 43.
Listing includes European wand loosestrife (Lythrum virgatum L.).
Identification:
Plant: Herbaceous, wetland perennial, 4-7 feet tall with a 4 to 6 sided wood-like stem.
Leaves: Opposite, sometimes whorled, lance-shaped, and downy with a slightly wavy yet
smooth edge. Leaf pairs are positioned at right angles to the leaf pairs above and below.
Flower: Each plant can have from one to many spikes of pinkish-purple flowers. Center
of the flower is yellowish and surrounded by 5-7 petals that have a wrinkled appearance.
Bloom time is July to September.
Fruit and seed: Tiny seeds are released from 2-parted capsules.
Life History: Reproduction by seeds and rhizomes produce large monoculture infestations.
Habitat: Purple loosestrife can be found on upland sites but is best known as an invader of wetlands or aquatic habitats
such as ditches, wet meadows, ponds, marshes, river and stream banks as well as lake shores. Purple loosestrife dis-
rupts aquatic habitats as it displaces wetland emergent species.
Management:
Biological controls in the form of two leaf feeding beetles of the same genus (Galerucella calmariensis and G. pusilla)
have been very efhective in Minnesota.
Mowing is seldom an option due to wet environments. Cutting of flower spikes can be an efhective control of seed pro-
duction, spikes should be disposed of onsite or contained (e.g., bagged) and removed to an approved facility. Hand
pulling or digging of plants can also be efhective but care should be taken to remove entire root systems if possible.
Resprouting can occur from roots and root segments left in the ground or on the site so contain (e.g., bag) and remove
to an approved facility.
Herbicide formulations labeled for use on rights-of-way and near water; 2,4-D, glyphosate, imazamox, metsulfuron-
methyl+aminopyralid, triclopyr, imazapyr and aminocyclopyrachlor.
Purple loosestrife : Lythrum salicaria L.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide
Foliar
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Prohibited: Control
Back to Index Page
Page 22 5/28/2015
Identification: Compare to native goldenrods (Solidago spp.). See page 45.
Plant: Herbaceous, perennial reaching 2-5 feet in height. Stems appear woody, are
slightly hairy to smooth and at the base are purplish-red.
Leaves: Alternate, pinnately divided, toothed on edges and 2-12 inches long, typically
smaller near the top of plants. Leaves are strongly aromatic when crushed.
Flower: Single stems support multi-branched, flat clusters of bright yellow button-like
flowers. Each ¼-½ inch wide button is comprised of many small florets and the flower
heads, like the leaves, are strongly aromatic.
Key difference - Note the lack of ray petals surrounding the flower heads.
Compare to goldenrods which have ray petals.
Bloom time is July to October.
Fruit and seed: Small, yellowish-brown, dry, 5-toothed crowned seeds.
Life History: Reproduction is both vegetative from rhizomes and root fragments or by seed. Seeds are dispersed by
wind, water and human activities such as vehicle traffic and mowing.
Habitat: Found most often in open, disturbed areas typical of stream and river banks, trail edges, roadsides, gravel pits
and old farmsteads or pastures. Can be found in riparian areas, but most often in dry, well drained soils in full sun.
Management: Caution! The alkaloids contained in common tansy are toxic to livestock and humans if consumed in
quantity. Toxins can potentially be absorbed through skin, gloves are recommended when handling or pulling this plant.
Mechanical methods like tilling can spread common tansy by spreading small root segments. Pulling also may leave
root segments in the ground which may resprout.
Cutting or mowing to prevent seed production can be efhective and should be timed just prior to flowering.
Prescribed fire can eliminate competition and create favorable conditions for common tansy by opening the canopy and
preparing bare soil. Thus, fire can make an infestation worse; however, fire can be used to remove dead material to
improve follow-up herbicide application providing better contact and potentially better control.
Herbicide formulations of metsulfuron-methyl, imazapyr, glyphosate or 2,4-D provide good control when applied as
foliar applications in spring.
Prohibited: Control Common tansy : Tanacetum vulgare L.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide Foliar Foliar treatments target rosettes.
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Back to Index Page
Page 23 5/28/2015
Identification: Compare to golden alexanders (Zizia aurea) and
heart-leaved golden alexanders (Z. aptera), both native. See page 44.
Plant: Herbaceous, classed as a monocarpic perennial (plant dies after bearing fruit). Early life
form is a basal rosette with mature stems developing a hollow, grooved flowering stalk poten-
tially reaching 5 feet.
Leaves: Basal rosette leaves can be 6 inches in height and are pinnately compound with 5-15
leaflets. Flowering stalk leaves are alternate, 2-5 leaflets that become smaller near the top of
the stem. Leaflets are coarsely toothed, sinuses cut to varying depths creating lobes of various
sizes. The base of the leaf stalks wrap or clasp the grooved stem.
Flower: Many 5-petaled, small yellow flowers on wide, flat umbels of 2 to 6 inches.
Bloom time is June to July.
Fruit and Seed: Flattened, yet ridged, oval seeds.
Life History: Typical life span is two years, first year a basal rosette. At this stage, it is one of the first plants to green up
in the spring and one of the last to brown down in autumn providing good opportunities for scouting and treating. Mid
to late summer, mature second-year plants will bolt, flower and set dozens of seed per plant. Seeds are moved ofh in-
fested sites by animal and human activity or wind and water movement. Seed is reported to be viable in soil for up to 4
years.
Habitat: Disturbed sites such as roadsides and abandoned fields or lots. Can occur in wet meadows but dry to mesic
soils are more typical. Full to partial sun is a must for this species.
Management: Caution! Use protective clothing, goggles or face mask, contact with the sap of the plant (i.e., phyto) can
cause severe blistering and swelling (i.e., dermatitis) when combined with exposure to sunlight (i.e., photo), phytopho-
todermatitis.
If cutting or mowing after seed set, clean equipment to leave seeds on the infested site. A second option if cut after
seed-set is to contain (e.g., bag) and remove plant material to an approved facility. If a site is mowed early in the season
it must be monitored as plants will likely re-sprout, bolt and flower.
Prescribed fire can be used to encourage stands of native grasses for competition. However, follow-up treatments
(herbicide or cutting) are still required to prevent seed production.
Herbicide controls include foliar applications of 2,4-D or metsulfuron-methyl to the rosette stage during
May and June and again in September or October. If glyphosate is to be applied to rosettes, it is recom-
mended to hold ofh until late fall to prevent damage to desirable plants that should then be dormant.
Wild parsnip : Pastinaca sativa L.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide
Foliar
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Prohibited: Control
Back to Index Page
Page 24 5/28/2015
Identification: Compare to native phragmites (Phragmites australis ssp.
americanus). See page 46.
Plant: A perennial grass reaching heights of 15 feet. Dense stands devel-
op from rhizomatous root systems with live stems and dead stems inter-
mingled. Hollow stems are green in summer and yellow in winter.
Leaves: Dark green, grass-like elongated foliage that is at most 1½ inch-
es wide. Leaf sheaths are typically retained on culms (stems) into winter
even if leaves drop from dead culms. Compare to native phragmites that
sheds leaves and leaf sheaths.
Flower: Bushy panicles of purplish or golden flowers appear in July.
Bloom time is July to September.
Fruit and Seed: As they mature, large, dense seed heads become gray.
Hairy seeds give seed heads a fuzzy, flufhed appearance.
Life History: Rhizomes, rhizome fragments, root runners and copious amounts of seed provides common reed a strong
competitive edge. It forms such dense stands and thick root systems that all native plants can be forced out. Rhizome
segments can break free and coupled with seed production plants readily move into and take over new areas.
Habitat: Shorelines of lakes and rivers as well as pond edges and freshwater marshes. Disturbed areas and roadsides
can support common reed very well.
Management: Once established, chemical treatments are recommended as a first step in restoration efhorts.
Cutting or mowing will not kill plants or eradicate infestations, but can be efhective at slowing the spread.
Prescribed fire after the plant has flowered. Used prior to herbicide treatments, fire (or mowing) removes biomass im-
proving herbicide application to regrowth. Do not burn prior to flowering, as this timing may only encourage growth.
Herbicide applications, aquatic formulations of imazapyr or glyphosate are efhective, even on established stands. Rapid
recognition of infestations and treatments soon after increase efhectiveness. Late summer/early autumn herbicide ap-
plications to foliage or to cut stems are best and repeat treatments in subsequent seasons are likely necessary.
Restricted Common reed : Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn After flower
Herbicide
Foliar After Flower
Cut stem After Flower
Mow Mowing must be repeated
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Glumes or seed covers vary in length. Upper and
lower glumes are longer on the native sub-
species. Best analyzed under a microscope.
Back to Index Page
Page 25 5/28/2015
Identification: Compare to the native cherries and wild plum (Prunus spp.). See page 39.
Plant: Tall shrub at 20-26 feet with potential to become a small tree reaching 36 feet.
Often one to a few stems with diameters up to 5-6 inches and occasionally larger. Light-
colored lenticels on shiny gray to brown bark leads to confusion with young native cher-
ries and plums (Prunus spp.). Many twigs are terminated by a small thorn-like spine.
Leaves: Sub-opposite, at times appearing opposite and on fast growing sprouts alternate.
Shiny green, 1-2½ inches, oval with tiny teeth on leaf edges. Veins curving to the tip of the
leaf (arcuate venation) provide a strong identification characteristic and green leaves per-
sisting into autumn.
Flower: Male and female (dioecious) on separate plants, small, 4-parted and green.
Bloom time is May to June.
Fruit and Seed: Fruit on female plants only. At maturity a purplish-black, small (¼ inch), berry-like fruit held close to the
stem in clusters. Typically, 3-4 seeds per fruit. Strong identification characteristic are these blackish fruits held close to
twigs late into winter.
Life History: Reproduction is by seed and dispersal is often aided by birds. Heavy seed production combined with stems
and stumps that sprout vigorously when damaged make control difficult.
Habitat: A strong competitor on upland sites in a variety of soil types and moisture regimes. Common buckthorn
thrives in the understory, on the forest edge or in full sun often to complete exclusion of other species.
Management:
Keep in mind, if funds and/or time are limited female plants are the fruit producers and should be targeted first. Cau-
tion should be exercised to avoid creating large bare patches and/or extensive soil disturbance. Both scenarios lead to
soil erosion and create good seed beds for common buckthorn regeneration.
Hand pulling or the mechanical advantage provided by a weed-wrench can help control small infestations. Cutting of
stems must be accompanied by herbicide treatments or resprouting will occur. Mowing is typically not an option in
sensitive wetland areas, but on upland sites may be a useful tool in seedling and small diameter stem control.
Prescribed fire is used to control seedlings and small diameter stems and if used consistently can drain larger plants of
reserves and provide control. However, sprouting will occur and a follow-up herbicide application should be considered.
Herbicide formulations of triclopyr, imazapyr, metsulfuron-methyl, 2,4-D, glyphosate or picloram are used as foliar ap-
plications. Herbicides include triclopyr or glyphosate for late autumn into winter applications to basal bark, cut stumps
or frill cuts.
Restricted Common buckthorn : Rhamnus cathartica L.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide Foliar
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Back to Index Page
Page 26 5/28/2015
Identification: Compare to the native cherries and wild plum (Prunus spp.). See page 39.
Plant: Shrub or small tree at 20 feet in height, often multi-stemmed with prominent light-
colored lenticels on dull grayish to dark brown bark. Heartwood may be orange to pinkish
and sapwood may be yellowish, both can facilitate identification.
Leaves: Alternate, glossy, 2-3 inch length with prominent parallel veins terminating near a
smooth edge. Undersides are slightly hairy and dull. Leaves will likely persist longer in au-
tumn than native deciduous shrubs, but they will turn yellow and drop.
Flower: Not showy, small, 5-petaled, yellowish and borne in clusters in the leaf axils.
Bloom time is May to July.
Fruit and Seed: Clustered in leaf axils along the stem, initially reddish maturing to purplish-black in late summer into
autumn. Each fruit contains 2-3 seeds, dispersed by birds.
Life History: Reproduction is by seed and while birds disperse the seed, dense thickets suggest many seeds drop close.
Shades out native shrubs and forbs creating monocultures in sites that typically support very diverse flora.
Habitat: An invader of wetlands, including sedge meadows, sensitive acidic bogs and calcareous fens. Tolerant of
shade, yet will perform well in full sun on upland sites.
Management:
Caution should be exercised to avoid creating large bare patches and/or extensive soil disturbance. Both scenarios lead
to soil erosion and create good habitat for glossy buckthorn regeneration.
Hand pulling or the mechanical advantage provided by a weed-wrench can help control small infestations. Cutting of
stems must be accompanied by herbicide treatments or resprouting will occur. Mowing is typically not an option in
sensitive wetland areas, but on upland sites may be a useful tool in seedling and small diameter stem control.
On upland sites prescribed fire can be used to control seedlings and small diameter stems and if used consistently can
drain larger plants of reserves and provide control. However, sprouting will occur and a follow-up herbicide application
should be considered.
Herbicide formulations of triclopyr, imazapyr, metsulfuron-methyl, 2,4-D, glyphosate or picloram are used as foliar ap-
plications. Herbicides include triclopyr or glyphosate for late autumn into winter applications to basal bark, cut stumps
or frill cuts.
Restricted Glossy buckthorn : Frangula alnus Mill.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide Foliar
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Yellowish Orange to pink
sapwood heartwood
Back to Index Page
Page 27 5/28/2015
Identification:
Plant: Herbaceous, biennial with first year plants being basal rosettes. Sec-
ond year flowering plants can attain heights of 4 feet and can produce more
than one flowering stem.
Leaves: Basal rosettes with coarsely toothed, kidney-shaped foliage remains
green through winter. Foliage on flowering stems is alternate, triangular,
coarsely toothed and stalked. Foliage has the odor of garlic when crushed.
Flower: Clustered, 4-parted, white flowers are approximately ⅓ inch across.
Bloom time is April to June.
Fruit and Seed: The 1-2½ inch long slender seed pods are very recognizable
and contain numerous black, shiny seeds.
Life History: Reproduction is by seed that matures June into July and can be
dispersed about 6 inches when pods burst at maturity. Seed remains viable in
soil for up to 5 years.
Habitat: An invader of shady, moist forests or woodland settings but also invades oak savannas and disturbed areas in
full sun. It is reported that garlic mustard will inhibit the growth of beneficial fungi associated with native plants thus
causing a decline in herbaceous cover.
Management: Biological controls are under investigation, but none are approved for release at this time. One insect
being studied is Ceutorhynchus scrobicollis, a crown and stem-mining weevil.
Manual methods include pulling plants in early spring prior to flowering (seed set is almost coincidental with flowering)
and cutting plants back to the ground as they bolt for flowering, prior to flower opening. Monitor the site as cutting may
need to be repeated. If mature flowers (or seed pods) are present, plants should be disposed of onsite or contained
(e.g., bagged) and removed to an approved facility.
Prescribed fire in spring to top-kill basal rosettes and seedlings. Follow-up treatment with herbicide is imperative after
seedling germination to further slow growth of infestations.
Herbicide applications to foliage with formulations of triclopyr, metsulfuron-methyl, or imazapic. Use glyphosate or
2,4-D after native plants have entered dormancy and garlic mustard is still active.
Restricted Garlic mustard : Alliaria petiolata (M. Bieb.) Cavara & Grande
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide Foliar
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Back to Index Page
Page 28 5/28/2015
Identification:
Plant: Shrub with 6-13 feet long, wide arching canes reaching 6-15 feet tall. The
canes armed with stifh, downward curved thorns form an impenetrable thicket.
Leaves: Alternate, pinnately compound, 5-11 sharply-toothed leaflets. The oval
leaflets are nearly smooth on the topside and are covered with short hairs below.
There are fringed stipules where leaves attach to stems.
Flower: Numerous, showy flowers. Five-parted, fragrant, white to slightly pink, ½-
1½ inches across.
Bloom time is May to July.
Fruit and Seed: Rose hips, ¼ inch diameter, bright red fruits, develop during sum-
mer months and persisting into winter.
Life History: Plants reproduce by seed and by cane tips with ground contact taking root. The plants are prolific seed
producers and seeds are viable in seed banks for up to 20 years.
Habitat: Readily invades disturbed areas such as woodlands, prairies, roadsides, along streams and has become a prob-
lem in pastures where the thorns discourage grazing.
Management:
Cutting or mowing frequently during the growing season (3-6 times) for 2-4 years can achieve good control of infesta-
tions.
Prescribed fire in the spring will provide good control of small stems and seedlings.
Herbicide applications to cut stems and to resprout stems with systemic herbicides such as glyphosate have proven suc-
cessful. As with most species, late season applications of herbicides are efhective as plants are moving photosynthates
to storage in root systems.
Restricted Multiflora rose : Rosa multiflora Thunb.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide
Foliar
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Back to Index Page
Page 29 5/28/2015
Identification: More images and listed cultivars next page.
Plant: Perennial woody shrubs, multi-stemmed and typically 3-6 feet tall (potentially to 8 feet tall). The stems are
grooved or angular and ranging in color from gray to reddish-brown. Single ½ inch long spines occur at nodes where
leaves attach.
Leaves: Alternate, typically clustered so not appearing alternate. Leaves are simple, narrow near the twig and de-
scribed as obovate (wider towards the end). The leaf edge or margin is smooth (B. koreana has teeth) and occasionally
there is a minute spine tip or point on the end of the leaf.
Flower: Small (¼ to ⅓ inch) yellowish flowers suspended under the foliage. Therefore not considered showy. Japanese
barberry flowers are typically individual but flowers may be in clusters of 2-4 while Korean barberry (B. Koreana Palib.)
may have up to 20 flowers per raceme (cluster). See upper right-hand image on next page.
Bloom time is May to early June.
Fruit and Seed: Bright red, a true berry that persists into and through winter (image next page, bottom right: fruit at leaf
out in April). The ⅓ inch long ellipsoidal berries, like the flowers, will be solitary or in clusters of 2-4.
Life History: Seed production is strong and this special regulation targets species and cultivars producing on average
more than 600 seeds. Seed bank viability (longevity) is not well understood; although, a report on B. thunbergii ‘Beth’
states that the seed remain viable up to 10 years. Reproduction can also be vegetative via root sprouts and shrub
branches may root if in contact with the ground.
Habitat: Prefers well drained soils in full sun to partial or deep shade. Forest edges, open forests and other woodlands
yet also found in old fields, areas of disturbance and can survive in wetland soils.
Management: Prescribed fire (or direct flame from a propane torch) can be useful to kill seedlings, and drain energy
from mature plants . Mowing (cutting) can prevent or delay seed production but typically is not considered an eradica-
tion method. Monitor the infestation and utilize follow-up treatments of mowing and/or herbicide.
For small numbers of plants manual methods including cutting, digging, and hand pulling if done repeatedly and in con-
junction with other treatments can control infestations. Monitor and consider supplemental herbicide treatments.
When pulling and digging suspend roots above ground to ensure they dry out. Plants should be disposed of onsite or
contained (e.g., bagged) and removed to an approved facility.
Foliar herbicide treatments with metsulfuron products at full leaf out during the active growing season. Additionally,
dicamba + 2,4-D, triclopyr or glyphosate at full leaf out while the plants are fruiting during the growing season.
Cut stem applications at any time with glyphosate or triclopyr formulations can also be useful.
Basal bark treatments at any time with imazapyr or triclopyr products have proven efhective.
Specially Regulated Japanese barberry : Berberis thunbergii DC.
Back to Index Page
Specially Regulated
is a unique category.
See page 56.
Above: B. thunbergii in flower late May.
Below left: B. thunbergii ‘Erecta’
Below right: B. thunbergii ‘Rose Glow’ (top) and
B. thunbergii ’Sparkle’ (bottom)
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn Follow up with other treatments as necessary
Herbicide
Foliar
Cut stem Basal bark or cut stem treatments at any time
Mow Mow, then monitor and follow-up with other treatments as needed
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Page 30 5/28/2015
Specially Regulated Japanese barberry : Berberis thunbergii DC.
Back to Index Page
Above: ‘Tara’ (Emerald Carousel®; B. koreana X B. thunbergii hybrid)
Above left: Grooved, reddish-brown stem, single spines at nodes. Above center: Foliage and racemes of fruits. Above right: Form
Above: B. koreana images for comparison.
Toothy foliage (serrulate margin) and
more than 10 rounded fruits per raceme
Inset: Close-up of Korean barberry leaf edge.
Below: Unknown Berberis species / cultivar
holding fruit at leaf out in April. Japanese barberry cultivars to be phased out and then prohibited from sale.
These plants average greater than 600 seeds per plant and
will begin a three-year phase-out period in Minnesota beginning January 1, 2015.
‘Angel Wings’ ‘Antares’ ‘Anderson’ (Lustre Green™) var. atropurpurea
‘Crimson Velvet’ ‘Erecta’ ‘Gold Ring’ ‘Inermis’ ‘Kelleris’ ‘Kobold’
‘Marshall Upright’ ‘Painter’s Palette’ ‘Pow Wow’ ‘Red Rocket’ ‘Rose Glow’
‘Silver Mile’ ‘Sparkle’
‘JN Redleaf’ (Ruby Jewel™) ‘JN Variegated’ (Stardust™) ‘Monomb’ (Cherry Bomb™)
‘Bailgreen’ (Jade Carousel®) ‘Bailone’ (Ruby Carousel®) ‘Bailtwo’ (Burgundy Carousel®)
‘Bailsel’ (Golden Carousel®; B. koreana X B. thunbergii hybrid)
‘Tara’ (Emerald Carousel®; B. koreana X B. thunbergii hybrid) Wild Type (parent species - green barberry)
Left: B. thunbergii
‘Bailone’
Ruby Carousel®
Right: B. thunbergii
‘Bailtwo’
Burgundy Carousel®
Specially Regulated
See page 56.
Page 31 5/28/2015
Identification: Synonym: Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decr.
Compare to larger giant knotweed next page.
Plant: Perennial plants with non-woody stems from 5-8 feet (10 feet). Stems are smooth,
green with reddish-brown blotches, hollow between swollen nodes where leaves attach.
Leaves: Alternate, simple, can be 2 to 7 inches long with a truncate base (mostly straight
across). The tip of the leaf is acuminate (narrowed to an abrupt point) and the underside of
the leaf lacks the hairs found on giant knotweed.
Flower: Protruding from the leaf axils (where the leaf attaches) are branched structures hold-
ing many small, creamy white to greenish flowers. Japanese knotweed has a flower structure
that is longer then the leaf, while the flower structure of giant knotweed is shorter than the
nearby leaf.
Bloom time is August to early October.
Fruit and Seed: Like giant knotweed the seed is small, shiny black and three sided.
Life History: It is believed that seed production is limited and most reproduction is vegetative.
Even small root parts will re-sprout after plants are manually removed. Stem fragments re-
sulting from mowers or other machinery can sprout if in contact with moist soil. Plants up-
rooted by flooding or digging if in contact with the moist soil will likely re-root.
Seeds that are produced are said to be viable four to five years if near the soil surface and up
to 15 years if buried.
Habitat: Prefers moist soils in full sun to partial shade. Plants readily inhabit moist roadside
ditches, wetlands, and areas along rivers and streams.
Management: See discussion under giant knotweed - next page.
Specially Regulated Knotweed, Japanese : Polygonum cuspidatum Siebold & Zucc.
Back to Index Page
Specially Regulated is a unique category. Unadvisable to plant this species within 100 feet of
a water body or its designated floodplain. See page 56.
Page 32 5/28/2015
Identification: Synonym: Fallopia sachalinensis (F. Schmidt ex Maxim.) Ronse Decr.
Compare to smaller Japanese knotweed previous page.
Plant: Perennial plants with non-woody stems from 6-16 feet. The stems are smooth, light green in color, hollow be-
tween swollen nodes where leaves attach.
Leaves: Alternate, simple, can be up to 12 inches across and 6-14 inches long with rounded lobes at the base (heart-
shaped). The tip of the leaf is blunt and the underside of the leaf may have scattered hairs early in the season.
Flower: Protruding from the leaf axils (where the leaf attaches) are branched structures holding many small, creamy
white to greenish flowers. Unlike Japanese knotweed where the flower structure is longer then the leaf, the flower
structure of giant knotweed is shorter than the nearby leaf.
Bloom time is August to early October.
Fruit and Seed: Like Japanese knotweed the seed is small, shiny black and three sided.
Life History: It is believed that seed production is limited and most reproduction is vegetative. Even small root parts will
re-sprout after plants are manually removed. Stem fragments resulting from mowers or other machinery can sprout if
in contact with moist soil. Plants uprooted by flooding or digging if in contact with the moist soil will likely re-root.
Seeds that are produced are said to be viable four to five years if near the soil surface and up to 15 years if buried.
Habitat: Prefers moist soils in full sun to partial shade. Plants readily inhabit moist roadside ditches, wetlands, and
areas along rivers and streams.
Management: Advice is to develop a four to five year plan. Prescribed fire in spring can set plants back and drain some
energy while mowing can prevent or delay seed production. However, both can stimulate vegetative reproduction, thus
potentially increasing stem counts. Monitor the infestation and utilize follow-up treatments of periodic mowing and/or
herbicide.
Manual methods should not be considered eradication tools. These include cutting, digging, hand pulling, grazing or
tarping if done repeatedly and in conjunction with other treatments may control infestations. Monitor and consider
supplemental herbicide treatments. Plants should be disposed of onsite or contained (e.g., bagged) and removed to an
approved facility.
Prior to foliar herbicide treatments with aminopyralid, glyphosate, imazapyr, triclopyr, or 2,4-D it is recommended that
the plants be cut twice when 3 feet tall. Follow with a fall foliar application when regrowth is 3 feet tall and still actively
growing. Cut stem applications with glyphosate, triclopyr or triclopyr + 2,4-D can be made at anytime during active
growth when the plants are over 3 feet tall. Stem injection treatments with glyphosate can be made anytime during
active growth periods. See glyphosate’s supplemental label for hollow stem injection.
Specially Regulated Knotweed, giant : Polygonum sachalinense F. Schmidt ex Maxim.
Back to Index Page
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Herbicide
Inject During active growth, treat when 3’ tall.
Foliar Mow / cut twice - fall treatment.
Cut stem During active growth, treat when 3’ tall.
Mow Mowing is not recommended. If used, collect cuttings, monitor and repeat.
Follow-up with herbicide treatments at 3 feet of regrowth in fall. Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Right leaf in each pair - giant knotweed
Left leaf in each pair - Japanese knotweed
Specially Regulated is a
unique category. Unadvisa-
ble to plant this species
within 100 feet of a water
body or its designated
floodplain. See page 56.
Page 33 5/28/2015
Identification: Common poison ivy [T. radicans (L.) Kuntze ssp. negundo (Greene) Gillis] is po-
tentially a larger shrub (up to 10 feet) and possibly a vine in southeastern Minnesota’s riparian
areas.
While both species are subject to regulation, information provided below focuses on western
poison ivy [T. rydbergii (Small) Green] which is a frequently occurring shrubby plant with an
extensive natural range across Minnesota.
Plant: A 1-2 foot native shrub with gray to tan bark and little if any branching.
Leaves: Alternate, compound leaves, 3 shiny or dull surfaced leaflets. Leaflet edges are varia-
ble from smooth to very coarsely toothed. Lower leaf surfaces are pale and often hairy.
Flower: Small, greenish flowers on erect spikes (panicles). Flower spikes are borne in leaf axils on new or current years
growth with male and female flowers on separate plants (dioecious).
Bloom time is June to July.
Fruit and Seed: Creamy white to tannish berry-like drupes, approximately ¼ inch diameter. Drupes mature in August
through September and persist through the winter providing a good identification characteristic on female plants.
Life History: Forms dense colonies by seed and through vegetative reproduction from surface or subsurface rhizomes.
Habitat: Invades disturbed areas such as roadsides, trail sides, fencerows, parks and can also be found in prairie (full
sun) and forested settings (partial shade).
Specially Regulated is a unique category. Poison ivy, although irritating to humans, is a native plant that
benefits wildlife by providing a food source to birds, small mammals and large browsers. See page 56.
Management: Caution! Use protective clothing, rubber gloves and long sleeves, contact with the sap (urushiol) from
broken plant parts can cause blistering (dermatitis), even during the winter months. Caution! Smoke from burning poi-
son ivy can deliver urushiol to airways and lungs. Do not compost as resprouting can occur and urushiol may persist in
compost. Urushiol can stay on pets, tools, toys and other objects for long periods to be efhectively transferred and
cause irritation at a later date.
Grazing, cutting or mowing can inhibit flowering but must be continued in order to deplete energy reserves in the
plants and to deplete the seed bank.
Prescribed fire generates potentially harmful smoke, see cautionary note above. So, while prescribed fire can provide
control and often does control infestations of poison ivy, this tool should not be the first choice.
Herbicide formulations of triclopyr, 2,4-D, glyphosate, imazapyr or aminocyclopyrachlor applied to foliage or to cut
stems are efhective. Repeat applications will be required to exhaust seed banks.
Specially Regulated Poison ivy : Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide Foliar
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Left: Shrub form
Above: Vine form
Back to Index Page
Page 34 5/28/2015
Identification: Provided for comparison to purple flowered weeds such as thistles or knapweeds.
Return to brown, meadow or spotted knapweeds (pgs. 14, 15, 16) / Canada or plumeless thistles (pgs. 17, 18).
Plant: Fabaceae family, 4-sided stem supports a 1-3 foot tall plant.
Leaves: Alternate, 3-parted, compound leaves with individual leaflets measuring ⅜ to
1⅜ inches long, stipulate (leaf-like appendages where leaves attach to stems).
Key difference - Thistles and knapweeds have simple leaves (divided or lobed) not
compound.
Flower: 5-parted, purplish to blue (occasionally cream colored) and approximately ¼
to ½ inch long. Alfalfa has a clustered, somewhat conical flower head.
Key difference - Thistles and knapweeds are disk flowers which have ray flowers on the perimeter.
Bloom time is June to September.
Fruit and Seed: Coiled pods, brown in color.
Habitat: Introduced to North America for livestock forage and is an agriculture crop. Common in roadside ditches, and
similar disturbed areas.
Nonnatives Alfalfa : Medicago sativa L.
Vetches : Coronilla varia L. and Vicia villosa Roth.
Identification: Provided for comparison to purple flowered weeds such as thistles or knapweeds.
Plant: Fabaceae family, some vetches (annuals / biennials) have a spreading form and may have
tendrils to climb nearby plants up to 3 feet. Crown vetch (C. varia) is an erect perennial plant at
1-2 feet tall that forms dense tangled colonies.
Leaves: Alternate, compound leaves, pinnately divided, numerous oval leaflets. Hairy vetch (V.
villosa) - 5-10 pairs with tendrils terminal. Crown vetch - 11-25 leaflets on a stalk-less leaf.
Key difference - Thistles and knapweeds have simple leaves (divided or lobed) not compound.
Flower: Hairy vetch (image to right) has 5-parted, purple flowers about ¾ inch in length. Typi-
cally 10-40 flowers in a one-sided cluster.
Crown vetch (images to left) has a dense cluster (crown-like) of 5-parted, ⅓-½ inch long pinkish
flowers.
Key difference - Thistles and knapweeds are disk flowers with ray flowers on the perimeter.
Bloom time is May to September.
Fruit and Seed: Pods - hairy vetch has a ½-¾ inch long pod while crown vetch has a 4-angled
multi-segmented pod.
Habitat: Old fields, pastures and roadsides. Crown vetch has been planted extensively for ero-
sion control due to its dense, colony forming habit.
Nonnatives
Crown vetch flower and compound leaf.
Hairy vetch
Back to Index Page 2
Page 35 5/28/2015
Identification: Provided for comparison to Dalmatian toadflax on page 7.
Plant: Similar to and often confused with bladder-campion (Silene vulgaris). Classed as a biennial/perennial that stands
as tall as 40 inches. Stems are smooth, pale grayish-green.
Strongly resembles Dalmatian toadflax’s gray-green color and form as well as habitat preference.
Leaves: Opposite, simple leaves have entire margins (no teeth on leaf edges), smooth, waxy and grayish-green.
Key difference - Leaves of Dalmatian toadflax are alternate on the stem, not opposite.
Flower: Flowers are five-parted, white with petals that are often rolled. The flower typically has purple tinged stamens
extending forward and behind the petals is a smooth bladder-like calyx or cup that will hold the seeds. The calyx is light
green, tapers at the ends and has parallel veins.
Key difference - Flowers are significantly different. Dalmatian toadflax has yellow snapdragon like flowers, while Balkan
catchfly has creamy-white 5-parted flowers.
Bloom time is May to October.
Fruit and Seed: Held in the calyx or bladder behind the petals. At maturity the bladder turns light tannish-brown and
the five tips curl backward.
Habitat: Full sun, dry, disturbed sites such as roadsides, abandoned lots, fields and gravel pits.
Nonnatives Balkan catchfly : Silene csereii Baumgarten
Back to Index Page 2
Above: Calyx tapered both ends, parallel veins.
Below: Curled petals, purplish stamens. Opposite, simple leaves, clasping and blue-gray. Form, opposite foliage, and plants are blue-gray.
Page 36 5/28/2015
Identification: Provided for comparison to Canada and plumeless thistles. See pages 17 and 18.
Compare to Minnesota native swamp thistle (Cirsium muticum), page 47.
Compare to nonnatives alfalfa and vetches. See page 34.
Plant: Herbaceous, biennial thistle, basal rosette in its first season. Second season, mature flowering stalks 1-7 feet tall.
Leaves: Rosettes can be twenty inches or more in diameter with rosette foliage deeply lobed, a light colored midrib and
leaf edges that are light colored and spiny. Foliage on flowering stalks is alternate with spiny wings from leaf bases onto
the stem and both surfaces are without hairs. Compare to plumeless thistle foliage that is hairy below.
Flower: Large at 1½-3 inches wide and deep pinks to purple. Composite flowers are solitary on branch ends, often nod-
ding with large dark-colored spiny bracts beneath. Compare to plumeless thistle’s flowers that are ½ to 1½ inches wide
with short spiny bracts and winged, spiny stems.
Bloom time is June to August.
Fruit and Seed: Seeds are tufted with feathery plumes that are easily wind dispersed and most are deposited within 160
feet of plants. Do not mow after seed has developed as this strongly aids dispersal.
Life History: Plants have thick taproots but no rhizomes; thus, musk thistle is not clonal. Seed production is high with
individual plants producing thousands of seed which can persist in seed banks up to 10 years.
Habitat: Infestations are found on dry to moist soils in woodlands, waste areas, roadsides, ditches
and stream banks.
Management:
Cutting taproots 1-2 inches below ground is efhective but time consuming for large numbers of
plants. Mowing should be timed at flower bud stage to prevent seed production and should be
repeated 2-3 times per season to be efhective. Care should be taken to avoid spreading seed with
hay or straw and with mowing and vehicle movement through infestations.
Prescribed fire can be used to encourage stands of native grasses that will outcompete thistle.
However, monitoring is needed to check for thistle that germinates in bare soil soon after burns are
completed.
Herbicide applications timed at the early bolting phase are foliar applications of 2,4-D ester or
dicamba formulations. For foliar applications at the budding to flower stage or fall applications to
basal rosettes turn to formulations of aminopyralid, clopyralid, metsulfuron-methyl or triclopyr.
Musk or nodding thistle : Carduus nutans L.
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-Mar
Burn
Herbicide Foliar
Cut stem
Mow
Don’t mow
Flowering Period
Nonnatives
Back to Index Page 2
Page 37 5/28/2015
Identification: Provided for comparison to leafy spurge on page 19.
Plant: Yellow rocket (a.k.a. winter cress, garden yellowrocket) was introduced from Eurasia and is common in Minneso-
ta. A biennial plant (also described as perennial) that forms a basal rosette its first year. Subsequent growing seasons,
flower stalks are erect at 8 to 36 inches tall, typically multi-branched and terminated by clusters of bright yellow flowers.
Leaves: Basal leaves and some stem leaves are pinnately lobed to deeply toothed and up to 6 inches in length. Often
the terminal end of leaves is a larger rounded lobe in addition to 1-4 lesser side lobes. Leaves near the top of the plant
are alternate, typically smaller, oval and often stalkless.
Key difference - Leaves of leafy spurge are simple (not lobed) and narrowly linear at 1-4 inches in length.
Flower: Crowded, rounded clusters of bright yellow stalked flowers. Flower clusters are terminal to branch ends.
Individual flowers range from ⅓ to ½ inch wide and have 4 bright yellow petals. As flower clusters elongate, flowers are
produced above with seed pods produced below.
Key difference - Leafy spurge has greenish-yellow flowers without petals. The greenish-yellow bracts beneath the true
flowers provide the appearance of a petaled flower. Confusion occurs due to overlap in bloom periods.
Bloom time is April to June.
Fruit and Seed: Slender pods develop along stems as flower clusters stretch upwards. The roundish pods are approxi-
mately 1 inch long, upward curved and contain small brown seeds at maturity.
Habitat: Considered a weed of lawns, gardens and agricultural fields. Often along roadsides and other disturbed sites.
An infestation of yellow rocket indicates a disturbed site on which ground cover of native forbs and grasses is thin.
Nonnatives Yellow rocket : Barbarea vulgaris W. T. Aiton
Back to Index Page 2
Page 38 5/28/2015
Identification: Provided for comparison to Oriental bittersweet on page 11.
Plant: Woody vine, twining, no tendrils or aerial roots to assist in climbing.
Leaves: Alternate, elliptic to oblong or obovate, typically twice as long as wide.
At bud break, leaf edges unroll in a scroll-like fashion.
Flower: Terminal panicles of numerous 5-parted flowers. Dioecious plants (male
and female) producing small, rather inconspicuous whitish flowers.
Key difference - terminal panicles. Flower location is observable on early growth.
Bloom time is May to June.
Fruit and Seed: Like the flowers, terminal panicles. Orange colored husks cover-
ing bright red 3-parted arils (fleshy, berry-like fruits) containing 1-2 seeds each.
Fruits persist into late winter.
Key differences - terminal clusters, orange colored husks, bright red 3-parted arils.
Habitat: Typically found in rich soil, full to partial sun often along roadsides and woodland edges.
Minnesota Natives American bittersweet : Celastrus scandens L.
Staminate (male) flowers with yel-
low pollen.
Pistillate (female) flowers clustered
at branch ends
Terminally clustered fruits, orange
husks and bright red arils.
Oriental bittersweet, yellowish
husks, fruit in leaf axils
American bittersweet, orange
husks and bright red arils
Foliage typically twice as long as
wide. Oriental tends toward oval.
Squares = ¼ inch.
Back to Index Page 2
Page 39 5/28/2015
Identification: Provided for comparison to common and glossy buckthorn on pages 25 and 26.
Plant: Plums, chokecherry and fire or pin cherry are small sized trees. Black cherry may be a small tree, but reaches
medium to large tree status. All have smooth, gray to brown bark that is often shiny and lenticeled. Couple that bark
and American plum’s thorn-like twigs and it is no surprise that it is frequently confused with buckthorn.
Leaves: Alternate, elliptic to oblong or ovate, typically finely toothed with acuminate or drawn out leaf tips.
Key difference - Prunus species have glands on the leaf petioles. Additionally, arcuate venation of common buckthorn.
Flower: Numerous 5-parted, white, fragrant flowers are fairly showy or obvious. Cherries have panicles of white fra-
grant flowers while the plum’s white flowers are clustered along the stem. In Minnesota wild plum is one of the earliest
trees to bloom, typically small groups of trees along the forest edge.
Key difference - 5-parted, white, fragrant flowers are fairly showy or obvious.
Bloom time is May to June.
Fruit and Seed: Choke and black cherries panicles (loose, hanging clusters) of black fruit are readily taken by birds. Pin
or fire cherry fruits mature to a bright red. Plums have a ¾-1 inch, reddish to purplish fruit that contains a large seed.
Key difference - birds eat fruits of cherries and plums after ripening. Buckthorn fruits remain on shrubs into late winter.
Habitat: Typically found in rich soil, full to partial sun often along roadsides and woodland edges.
Minnesota Natives Cherries and wild plum : Prunus spp.
Above: Mature, bright red fruit and foliage of pin cherry.
Below: Flower of black cherry and maturing fruit of chokecherry. Below: Thorns of wild plum on a dead branch. Wild plum flowers and fruit.
Back to Index Page 2
Page 40 5/28/2015
Identification: Provided for comparison to Japanese hops on page 10.
Plant: Herbaceous, perennial vine, rhizomatous (spreads by rhizomes). Leaf petioles
and annual stems with stout hooked hairs. Image at left is of developing, hooked
hairs in May.
Leaves: Opposite, for the most part 3 lobed (up to 5 lobes), higher on the vine leaves
may be unlobed. Typically, a cordate (heart shaped) base to the leaf and leaves
nearly as broad as long.
Key difference - 3 (maybe 5) lobed leaves, higher on the vine leaves may be unlobed.
Flower: Inconspicuous, wind pollinated and dioecious (male and female) plants.
Bloom time is July to August.
Fruit and Seed: Fruiting structure is cone like, comprised of papery bladders covering
individual seeds. Fragrant when crushed. Fruit persists into late winter (see image
at right).
Key difference - Fragrant when crushed.
Habitat: Moist soils, disturbed sites in woodlots and along fencerows.
Minnesota Natives Common hops : Humulus lupulus L.
Developing seed, 3-lobed and un-lobed leaves. Female flowers, 3-lobed, and un-lobed opposite leaves. Male flowers, 3-lobed, opposite leaves.
Back to Index Page 2
Page 41 5/28/2015
Identification: Provided for comparison to giant hogweed on page 8.
Plant: Perennial, single-stemmed large plants at 3-10 feet tall. Fuzzy stems are hollow and
described as foul smelling. Key difference - hogweed has purplish stems with coarse hairs.
Leaves: Alternate, compound, 3-parted with toothed, palmate leaflets. The petiole or leaf
stalk has an enlarged base that clasps the stem.
Key difference - hogweed has strongly dissected leaves up to 5 feet wide.
Flower: Many small, white, 5-parted flowers with notched petals, in a 4-8 inch flat umbel.
Key difference - outer flowers are often larger with irregular, notched petals.
Bloom time is June to July.
Fruit and Seed: Many flattened fruits that when dry split into 2 seeds. See left-hand image.
Habitat: Often found in rich, moist soils along streams or river bottoms in full to partial sun.
Caution: Although to a lesser extent, cow parsnip can cause blistering rashes similar to giant
hogweed. Again, plant sap reacting with sunlight - phytophotodermatitis.
Minnesota Natives Cow-parsnip : Heracleum lanatum Michx.
Outer flowers, larger, notched and irregular.
Clasping, 3-parted leaf
Back to Index Page 2
Page 42 5/28/2015
Wild cucumber (E. lobata) and bur cucumber (S. angulatus).
Identification: Provided for comparison to Japanese hops on page 10. Compare to common hops on page 40.
Plant: Annual vines (non woody) with tendrils, often found covering shrubs and small trees to approximately 20 feet.
Leaves: Simple, alternate, 3-5 triangular lobed wild cucumber leaves have small teeth along the leaf edge. Bur cucum-
ber difhers with its 3-5 shallowly lobed leaves having hairy undersides as well as sticky hairs on its stems.
Flower: Wild cucumber has creamy white flowers with 6 strap-like petals. These are male flowers. One rarely noticed
female flower is at the end of the flower spike. Bur cucumber has 5-petaled greenish-white male flowers clustered and
separate from the female flowers clustered elsewhere on the plant.
Bloom time is July to September.
Fruit and Seed: Solitary, prickly bladders distinguish wild cucumber from bur’s grouped, up to 10, prickly pods.
Habitat: Can be found growing side-by-side. Plants can be found in partial shade to full sun along the edge of the
woods or in thickets or open areas with moist soils.
Minnesota Natives Cucumbers : Echinocystis lobata Michx. and Sicyos angulatus L.
Above: Wild cucumber hanging on a fence in winter
Key difference - cucumber vines have tendrils.
Key difference - Both cucumber species have prickly
seed structures. Below: Wild cucumber
Above: Bladder-like seed pod remaining in winter, seeds dispersed.
Below: Wild cucumber foliage and flowers.
Above: Bur cucumber foliage and flowers.
Below: Bur cucumber foliage and prickly seed structure.
Back to Index Page 2
Page 43 5/28/2015
Synonym: Epilobium angustifolium L.
Identification: Provided for comparison to purple loosestrife on page 21.
Plant: Perennial, erect, rounded, single stems reaching 2-6 feet tall. Key difference - rounded stem, not 4-6 sided.
Leaves: Alternate, crowded leaves that are lance-like and stalkless. Key difference - alternate (not opposite).
Flower: Four-parted, colors range from pink to purple. The flowers are showy at ¾ to 1½ inches wide and arranged
along a tall terminal spike. Key difference - four-parted (purple loosestrife has 5-parted flowers).
Bloom time is June to August.
Fruit and Seed: Long, slender capsules or pods that split to release small seeds with long tufted hairs.
Habitat: Often present following burns on moist soils at forest edges or in clearings.
Minnesota Natives Fireweed : Chamerion angustifolium (L.) Holub ssp. angustifolium
Back to Index Page 2
Page 44 5/28/2015
Golden alexander [Zizia aurea (L.) W.D.J. Koch] and similar heart-leaved
golden alexander [Z. aptera (A. Gray) Fernald].
Identification: Provided for comparison to wild parsnip on page 23.
Plant: Herbaceous, perennial reaching 1-2 feet tall.
Key difference - golden alexanders smooth, shiny stems compared to the
grooved stem of wild parsnip.
Leaves: Alternate 2-3 inch stem leaves, mostly 3-parted with finely toothed
edges. Basal leaves of heart-leaved golden alexanders are simple and oval
(heart-shaped) while those of golden alexanders are compound like the
upper stem leaves.
Key difference - the basal leaves of wild parsnip are pinnately compound with 5-15 leaflets.
Flower: Terminal panicles of numerous 5-parted, yellow flowers.
Bloom time is May to July.
Fruit and Seed: Similar to wild parsnips, but smooth - when mature appears dry and splits into 2 parts.
Key difference - wild parsnip seeds are ridged or ribbed.
Habitat: Found in moderately moist to wet - sandy, loamy soils, full sun to shade.
Minnesota Natives Golden alexanders : Zizia aurea (L.) W.D.J. Koch
Z. aptera heart-shaped basal leaves.
Back to Index Page 2
Page 45 5/28/2015
In particular, compare common tansy to stifh goldenrod (Solidago rigida L.).
Identification: Provided for comparison to common tansy on page 22.
Plant: Perennial plants, often clumped, typically erect, single stems. Species typically ranges in height from 1-4
feet while species may reach heights of 7 feet.
Leaves: Alternate, simple, depending on species leaves are lance shaped, may or may
not be toothed and may or may not be hairy.
Key difference - tansy foliage is pinnately divided, toothed and aromatic when crushed.
Flower: Yellow ray flowers typically arranged in branched clusters. Depending on spe-
cies the inflorescence may be pyramidal, flat-topped or one-sided.
Key difference - goldenrod flowers have ray petals surrounding central, disk-like florets.
Bloom time is late July through September.
Fruit and Seed: Dry, light seeds often tufted with light-colored to brownish hairs easily carried
by wind.
Key difference - Tansy seed is not tufted and persists into winter in the flower heads.
Habitat: goldenrod species thrive in a variety of sites. They can be found in dry to wet prairies, dry to moist for-
ests and on a variety of roadsides. Partial to full sun.
Minnesota Natives Goldenrods : Solidago spp.
Ray petals of
stifh goldenrod
One-sided inflorescence of gray goldenrod Flat-topped inflorescence of stifh goldenrod Pyramidal inflorescence of Canada goldenrod
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Page 46 5/28/2015
Complete nomenclature from USDA GRIN: Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. subsp. americanus Saltonstall
Identification: Provided for comparison to common reed on page 24.
Plant: Perennial grass. Stand density can be similar to introduced common reed but, stands often have other native
plants interspersed. In comparison to introduced form, native plants are typically shorter and foliage appears yellowish.
Leaves: Summer leaves are yellowish. Leaves and leaf sheaths will drop from plants in winter leaving bare reddish
stems (photo at left). Ligule length determined under a dissecting microscope is diagnostic, typically > 1.0mm.
Flower: Approximately 3-4 months after spring growth begins.
Bloom time is June-September.
Fruit and Seed: Plumes are sparse and likely not persistent through winter. Glume lengths are diagnostic and as with
ligules a dissecting microscope is useful for measurement and comparison.
Habitat: Native phragmites occurs near water sources such as rivers, streams, shorelines of ponds and lakes as well as
within wetland systems including wet roadside ditches.
Minnesota Natives Native phragmites : Phragmites australis ssp. americanus Saltonstall
Left: Introduced - difhuse fungal spots and leaf sheaths intact on
yellow winter stems.
Right: Native - sharply defined fungal spots may be present on
some stems and note the maroon to pink color.
Images 2012/12/04.
Left: Introduced - green stems at the nodes.
Right: Native - maroon to pink color at the stem nodes.
Above: Introduced - larger, grayish, fuzzy seed head.
Right: Native - smaller, golden, some fuzziness to seed heads. Native phragmites has maroon stems at the nodes
or segment joints. Image 2009/11/02
Native phragmites seed heads are less dense, less fuzzy and typically not as large.
Left foreground: Introduced - dark green foliage with larger, grayish, seed heads.
Right background: Native - yellowish foliage with smaller, golden, seed heads.
Native Introduced
Native
Native
Native
Introduced
Introduced
Native
Introduced
Native
Images: 2009/08/18
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Identification: Provided for comparison to nonnative thistles; Canada and plumeless thistle on pages 17, 18.
See also: BWSR Featured Plant: Minnesota’s Thistles, Publication date 2013-3-6.
Plant: Biennial, mature plants from 2-7 feet tall with multiple-branches terminated by many heads. Stems are not spiny
but woolly, especially lower portions of the plant.
Leaves: Alternate, deeply divided leaves have lance-like or oblong segments that are described as softly spiny.
Flower: Purples to pinks typically not white. Composite flowers are 1½ inches wide held together by whitish, woolly,
non-spiny bracts that have a visible light-colored dorsal (central) ridge.
Bloom time is July to October.
Fruit and Seed: Tufted seed matures and is wind-dispersed late summer into autumn.
Habitat: Swamps, bogs and areas like wet meadows, moist woods and thickets.
Minnesota Natives Swamp thistle : Cirsium muticum Michx.
Key difference - Woolly, non-spiny bracts with a light
colored dorsal ridge.
Key difference - Deeply divided foliage that is
softly spiny. Stems are hairy or wooly, not spiny.
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Virginia creeper [Parthenoncissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch.] and
woodbine [P. vitacea (Knerr) Hitchc.], synonym: P. inserta (Kerner) K. Fritsch.
Identification: Provided for comparison to Japanese hops on page 10. Compare to common hops on page 40.
Plant: Woody, perennial vines, with tendrils that assist climbing into trees and onto structures (Virginia creeper and
woodbine) or sprawling on the forest floor (woodbine). Virginia creeper may develop aerial roots while woodbine does
not. Tendrils of Virginia creeper develop adhesive disks while tendrils of woodbine usually attach by wrapping around
an object, seldom developing adhesive disks.
Leaves: Alternate, palmately compound with 4-5 leaflets (typically 5). Leaflet bases are tapered and the leaf edges are
toothed (possibly doubly toothed).
Key difference - Leaves of Japanese hops are simple not palmately compound.
Flower: Both species have greenish flowers held on compound cymes (branched, flat-topped structures with terminal
flowers opening first). Virginia creeper’s structure has a central axis while woodbine’s does not.
Bloom time is June to July.
Fruit and Seed: Fruits are berries, bluish at maturity and held on red structures.
Key difference - Japanese hops does not produce berries.
Habitat: Virginia creeper is often found in forest interiors where it climbs high into the canopy. Woodbine on the other
hand will sprawl over the ground, on fences, rock piles unless it encounters a structure or tree suitable for climbing.
Full sun to partial shade of the forest, moist soils, along fencerows or found growing on disturbed sites where animals
and birds have dropped the seeds.
Minnesota Natives Woodbine : Parthenocissus spp.
Woodbine, palmately compound leaves.
Adhesive disks at tendril ends. Fall foliage and blue berries.
Virginia creeper, aerial roots
holding onto elm bark.
Back to Index Page 2
Woodbine climbing a
fence post.
Welby Smith
describes the flower
petals as
“Boat-shaped.”
Page 49 5/28/2015
Citations / Resources:
Black swallow-wort: Cynanchum louiseae Kartesz & Gandhi Page 4
Image citations – Bugwood.org:
all images - Leslie J. Mehrhofh, University of Connecticut.
Identification and management:
http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/pdf/cylo1.pdf
http://mipn.org/Midwest%20Invasives%20Fact%20Sheets/PDF/black%20swallowwort.pdf
Common teasel: Dipsacus fullonum L. Page 5
Image citations – Bugwood.org:
Flowering head close-up - David Cappaert, Michigan State University,
Flower group, basal rosettes, seed head - Steve Dewey, Utah State University.
Identification and management:
http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/weeds/plants/teasel.htm
http://dnr.state.il.us/stewardship/ExoticSpecies/Commonteasel.htm
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/forb/dipspp/all.html
http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/subject.html?sub=3018
Cutleaf teasel: Dipsacus laciniatus L. Page 6
Image citations: Dave Hanson and Tina Markeson, MnDOT.
Identification and management:
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/CutLeavedTeasel.html
http://dnr.state.il.us/education/exoticspecies/Cut-leavedteasel.htm
http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/subject.html?sub=5545
http://www.missouriplants.com/Whiteopp/Dipsacus_laciniatus_page.html
Dalmatian toadflax: Linaria dalmatica (L.) Mill. Page 7
Image citations: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT
Identification and management:
http://na.fs.fed.us/ffp/invasive_plants/weeds/dalmatian-toadflax.pdf
http://wiki.bugwood.org/HPIPM:Dalmatian_toadflax
http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/subject.html?sub=5939
Giant hogweed: Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Levier Page 8
Image citations – Bugwood.org:
Flower - Leslie J. Mehrhofh, University of Connecticut,
Flower and pen - USDA APHIS PPQ Archive, USDA APHIS PPQ,
Leaf - Donna R. Ellis, University of Connecticut,
Foliage to human - Thomas B. Denholm, New Jersey Department of Agriculture.
Identification and management:
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/ffp/invasive_plants/weeds/giant-hogweed.pdf
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/GiantHogweed.html
Grecian foxglove: Digitalis lanata Ehrh. Page 9
Image citations: Dave Hanson and Tina Markeson, MnDOT,
Identification and management:
http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/grecian-foxglove
http://www.mda.state.mn.us/plants/pestmanagement/weedcontrol/noxiouslist/foxglove.aspx
Japanese hops: Humulus japonicus Siebold & Zucc. Page 10
Image citations: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification and management:
http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/pdf/huja1.pdf
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/JapaneseHops.html
Oriental bittersweet: Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb. Page 11
Image citations: Ken Graeve and Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification and management:
http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/pdf/ceor1.pdf
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/OrientalBittersweet.html
http://www.invasive.org/browse/subinfo.cfm?sub=3012
Palmer amaranth: Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson Page 12
Foliage images: Aaron Hager, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Image citations from Bugwood.org:
Leaf/petiole and plant form - Ross Recker, University of Wisconsin - Madison,
Female seed spike and thick stem - Rebekah D. Wallace, University of Georgia.
Identification and management:
Becker, Roger. University of Minnesota. Herbicide recommendations. Email.
http://www.ksre.ksu.edu/bookstore/pubs/s80.pdf
http://www.extension.org/pages/65209/palmer-amaranth-amaranthus-palmeri
http://www.mda.state.mn.us/plants/pestmanagement/weedcontrol/noxiouslist/palmeramaranth.aspx
http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/2014/Palmer%20amaranthICMv2.0.pdf
Yellow starthistle: Centaurea solstitialis L. Page 13
Image citations – Bugwood.org: Bolting stage - Cindy Roche,
Flower up-close - Peggy Greb, USDA Agricultural Research Service,
Mature foliage, basal rosette - Steve Dewey, Utah State University.
Identification and management:
http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/pdf/ceso1.pdf
http://www.invasive.org/browse/subinfo.cfm?sub=4390
http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/technology/pdfs/Starthistle.pdf
Brown knapweed: Centaurea jacea L. Page 14
Image citations – Bugwood.org:
Flower - Rob Routledge, Sault College; Flower side view - Cindy Roche.
Foliage and form - Bruce Ackley, The Ohio State University,
Identification and management:
http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=250066298
http://na.fs.fed.us/ffp/invasive_plants/weeds/brown_knapweed.pdf http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artmar06/bj-knapweed.html
http://your.kingcounty.gov/dnrp/library/water-and-land/weeds/Brochures/knapweed.pdf
Prohibited: Eradicate
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Citations / Resources continued:
Meadow knapweed: Centaurea moncktonii C. E. Britton Page 15
Image citations: all images - Tom Jacobson, MnDOT.
Identification and management:
http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=250068128
http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/plantsci/weeds/w1146.pdf
http://www.mda.state.mn.us/en/plants/pestmanagement/weedcontrol/noxiouslist/
meadowkw.aspx
Spotted knapweed: Centaurea stoebe L. ssp. micranthos (Gugler) Hayek Page 16
Image citation:
Flower top/side views, basal rosette, rosette foliage - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Image citations – Bugwood.org: Foliage - James H. Miller, USDA Forest Service.
Images and good identification write-up: Minnesota wildflowers
http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/spotted-knapweed
Discussion and management considerations:
http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=250068126
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/SpottedKnapweed.html
http://wiki.bugwood.org/Centaurea_stoebe_ssp._micranthos
http://www.mda.state.mn.us/plants/pestmanagement/weedcontrol/noxiouslist/
spottedknapweed.aspx
http://wiki.bugwood.org/Archive:Knapweed
Canada thistle: Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Page 17
Image citations: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification and management:
http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/canada-thistle
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/CanadaThistle.html
Plumeless thistle: Carduus acanthoides L. Page 18
Image citations: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Images and good identification write-up: Minnesota wildflowers
http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/plumeless-thistle
Identification and management:
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/PlumelessThistle.html
http://wiki.bugwood.org/HPIPM:Plumeless_thistle
Leafy spurge: Euphorbia esula L. Page 19
Image citations: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Images and good identification write-up: Minnesota wildflowers
http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/leafy-spurge
http://www.mda.state.mn.us/plants/pestmanagement/weedcontrol/noxiouslist/
leafyspurge.aspx
Narrowleaf bittercress: Cardamine impatiens L. Page 20
Image citations – Bugwood.org: Leslie J. Mehrhofh, University of Connecticut.
Identification and management:
http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/narrow-leaf-bittercress
http://www.invasive.org/browse/subinfo.cfm?sub=11539
Purple loosestrife: Lythrum salicaria L. and Lythrum virgatum L. Page 21
Image citations: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Images and good identification write-up: Minnesota wildflowers
http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/purple-loosestrife
Write-up on identification and control options:
http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/lysa1.htm
http://wiki.bugwood.org/Archive:Loosestrife
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/PurpleLoosestrife.html
http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/aquaticplants/purpleloosestrife/index.html
Common tansy: Tanacetum vulgare L. Page 22
Image citations: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Images and good identification write-up: Minnesota wildflowers
http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/common-tansy
Identification and management:
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/Tansy.html
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/forb/tanvul/all.html
Wild parsnip: Pastinaca sativa L. Page 23
Image citations: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Images and good identification write-up: Minnesota wildflowers
http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/wild-parsnip
Identification and management:
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/WildParsnip.html
http://wiki.bugwood.org/Pastinaca_sativa
Prohibited: Control
Back to Index Page
Prohibited: Eradicate
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Citations / Resources continued:
Common reed: Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. Ex Steud. Page 24
Image citations: Ken Graeve and Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification and Management:
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/Phragmites.html
http://www.nmca.org/PHRAG_FIELD_GUIDE.pdf
http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/phau1.htm
Common buckthorn: Rhamnus cathartica L. Page 25
Image citations: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification and management:
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/CommonBuckthorn.html
http://wiki.bugwood.org/Rhamnus_cathartica
Glossy buckthorn (and all cultivars): Frangula alnus Mill. Page 26
Image citations: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification and management:
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/GlossyBuckthorn.html
http://wiki.bugwood.org/Frangula_alnus
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/fraaln/all.html
Garlic mustard: Alliaria petiolata (M. Bieb.) Cavara & Grande Page 27
Image citation: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Images and good identification write-up: Minnesota wildflowers
http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/garlic-mustard
Management:
http://www.ipm.msu.edu/invasive_species/garlic_mustard
Multiflora rose: Rosa multiflora Thunb. Page 28
Image citations: flower, foliage, form, - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification and Management:
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/MultifloraRose.html
http://wiki.bugwood.org/Rosa_multiflora#MANAGEMENT.2FMONITORING
Web links in this document verified April 29, 2015.
Miscellaneous images: Dave Hanson, MnDOT
Cover photo: Cutleaf teasel, Illinois roadside infestation.
Photos page 2: Dalmatian toadflax, Japanese hops and garlic mustard.
Photos page 3: field thistle, cow parsnip and stifh golden rod.
Photos page 53:
Biocontrol images including: spotted knapweed root weevil, loosestrife beetle,
leafy spurge flea beetle and spotted knapweed seedhead weevil.
Japanese barberry: Berberis thunbergii DC. Page 29, 30
Image citation: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification and Management:
Dirr, Michael. 2009. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants (full citation page 53)
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/JapaneseBarberry.html
http://mipn.org/control.html
Seed viability: http://www.invasive.org/weedcd/pdfs/srs/2008/barberry.pdf
Knotweed, Japanese: Polygonum cuspidatum Siebold & Zucc. Page 31
Image citation: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification and Management:
http://mipn.org/control.html
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/JapaneseKnotweed.html
http://www.kingcounty.gov/environment/animalsAndPlants/noxious-weeds/weed-
identification/invasive-knotweeds/japanese-knotweed.aspx
Knotweed, giant: Polygonum sachalinense F. Schmidt ex Maxim. Page 32
Image citation: all images -
Leslie J. Mehrhofh, University of Connecticut, Bugwood.org
Identification and Management:
http://mipn.org/control.html
http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Invasives/fact/GiantKnotweed.html
http://www.kingcounty.gov/environment/animalsAndPlants/noxious-weeds/weed-
identification/invasive-knotweeds/giant-knotweed.aspx
Poison ivy: western [Toxicodendron rydbergii (Small) Green] Page 33
common [T. radicans (L.) Kuntze ssp. negundo (Greene) Gillis]
Image citation: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification and Management:
http://www.nps.gov/public_health/info/factsheets/fs_pivy.htm
http://mdc.mo.gov/landwater-care/plant-management/nuisance-plant-management/poison-ivy-
control
http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/trees_shrubs/deciduous/poisonivy.html
Miscellaneous image: MnDOT
Photo page 53: herbicide application.
Miscellaneous images: Ken Graeve, MnDOT
Photos page 53: mowing and prescribed fire.
Restricted Noxious weeds: Specially Regulated Plants:
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Citations / Resources continued:
Nonnative plants and Minnesota native plants provided for comparison to the listed
noxious weeds.
Alfalfa: Medicago sativa L. Page 34
Image citations – Bugwood.org:
Foliage - Gerald Holmes, Valent USA Corporation,
Flower - Keith Weller, USDA Agricultural Research Service.
Identification:
http://wisplants.uwsp.edu/scripts/detail.asp?SpCode=MEDSAT
Vetches : Coronilla varia L. and Vicia villosa Roth. Page 34
Image citation: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification:
http://wisplants.uwsp.edu/scripts/detail.asp?SpCode=VICVIL
http://wisplants.uwsp.edu/scripts/detail.asp?SpCode=CORVAR
Balkan catchfly: Silene csereii Baumgarten. Page 35
Image citation: Dave Hanson and Ken Graeve, MnDOT.
Identification:
http://wisplants.uwsp.edu/scripts/detail.asp?SpCode=SILCSE
http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/balkan-catchfly
Musk or nodding thistle: Carduus nutans L. Page 36
Image citations: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Other images and good identification write-up: Missouri Plants
http://www.missouriplants.com/Pinkalt/Carduus_nutans_page.html
Yellow rocket: Barbarea vulgaris W. T. Aiton. Page 37
Image citation: Dave Hanson and Tina Markeson, MnDOT.
Identification:
http://wisplants.uwsp.edu/scripts/detail.asp?SpCode=BARVUL
http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/garden-yellow-rocket
American bittersweet: Celastrus scandens L. Page 38
Image citation: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification:
http://dendro.cnre.vt.edu/dendrology/syllabus2/factsheet.cfm?ID=913
Cherries and wild plum: Prunus spp. Page 39
Image citation: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification: http://wisplants.uwsp.edu/VascularPlants.html Genera: Prunus
Common hops: Humulus lupulus L. Page 40
Image citation: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/humulus_lupulus.html
Cow-parsnip: Heracleum lanatum Michx. Page 41
Image citation: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification: http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/common-cow-parsnip
Cucumbers, wild and bur: Echinocystis lobata Michx. and Sicyos angulatus L. Page 42
Image citation: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification: http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/wild-cucumber
http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/bur-cucumber
Fireweed: Chamerion angustifolium (L.) Holub ssp. angustifolium Page 43
Image citation: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification: http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/fireweed
Golden alexanders: Zizia aurea (L.) W.D.J. Koch and Z. aptera (A. Gray) Fernald Page 44
Image citation: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification: http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/golden-alexanders
http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/heart-leaved-alexanders
Goldenrods: Solidago spp. Page 45
Image citation: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification: http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/
Search plant name: solidago
Page 46
Native phragmites: Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. ssp. americanus Saltonstall
Image citations: Ken Graeve and Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification: http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?451454
http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/pdf/phau1-powerpoint.pdf
http://greatlakesphragmites.net/ecology/
Swamp thistle: Cirsium muticum Michx. Page 47
Image citation: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification: http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/swamp-thistle
Virginia creeper and woodbine: Parthenocissus spp. Page 48
Image citation: all images - Dave Hanson, MnDOT.
Identification:
Smith, Welby R. 2008. Trees and shrubs of Minnesota: the complete guide to species
identification. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Minnesota Native Plants:
Nonnative Plants:
Back to Index Page 2
Page 53 5/28/2015
Additional Book and Web Resources:
Black Merel R., Emmet J. Judziewicz. 2009. Wildflowers of Wisconsin and the
Great Lakes Region: a comprehensive field guide. Univ of Wisconsin Press. 275
pages.
Dirr, Michael. 2009. Manual of woody landscape plants: their identification, ornamen-
tal characteristics, culture, propagation and uses. Champaign, Ill: Stipes Pub.
Invasive.org – images at Bugwood. Online. http://www.invasive.org/species/forbs.cfm
Factsheets. Online. http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact.htm.
Midwest Invasive Plant Network. Online. http://mipn.org/
Education, identification, control and management.
Minnesota Department of Agriculture. Online.
- Noxious weed list - Noxious weed law - Identification
- Biological control - Pest management
Minnesota Department of Transportation. 2011. Herbicide Options for Vegetation Con-
trol on Mn/DOT Rights-of-Way. Internal Document.
herbicidepreseasontables.pdf
Mortenson, Carol. 2003. Noxious Weeds of Minnesota. Leech Lake Division of
Resources Management.
PCA Alien Plant Working Group. 2010. Least Wanted: Alien Plant Invaders of Natural
Areas. Factsheets. Online. http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact.htm.
Sarver, Matthew. et al. 2008. Mistaken Identity? Invasive plants and their native look-
alikes. online. http://www.nybg.org/files/scientists/rnaczi/
Mistaken_Identity_Final.pdf 12/2012.
Smith, Welby R. 2008. Trees and shrubs of Minnesota: the complete guide to species
identification. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Wisconsin DNR. 2010. A field Guide to Terrestrial Invasive Plants in Wisconsin. Ed.
Thomas Boos, Kelly Kearns, Courtney LeClair, Brandon Panke, Bryn Scrivner, and
Bernadette Williams.
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources factsheets:
Online. Terrestrial Invasive Species: List, Factsheets, Images
Back to Index Page
Biological Controls Mowing or Other Mechanical Means Herbicide Prescribed Fire
Management tactics can take many forms and should be based on predefined vegetation management goals.
Suggested timing of management tactics or control options can be found in graphical form on the following two pages.
Timings are based on recommendations described in the many resources listed on the previous pages.
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Page 1 of 2.
Back to Index Page
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Definitions of the noxious weed categories from the Minnesota Department of Agriculture web page:
http://www.mda.state.mn.us/en/plants/pestmanagement/weedcontrol/noxiouslist.aspx
State Prohibited Noxious Weeds
Prohibited noxious weeds are annual, biennial, or perennial plants that the commissioner designates as having the potential or are known to be detrimental to human or ani-
mal health, the environment, public roads, crops, livestock or other property. There are two regulatory listings for prohibited noxious weeds in Minnesota:
1. Eradicate List: Prohibited noxious weeds that are listed to be eradicated are plants that are not currently known to be present in Minnesota or are not widely established.
These species must be eradicated, meaning all of the above and below ground parts of the plant must be destroyed, as required by Minnesota Statutes, Section 18.78.
Additionally, no transportation, propagation, or sale of these plants is allowed. Measures must also be taken to prevent and exclude these species from being introduced
into Minnesota.
2. Controlled List: Prohibited noxious weeds listed to be controlled are plants established throughout Minnesota or regions of the state. Species on this list must be con-
trolled, meaning efhorts must be made to prevent the spread, maturation and dispersal of any propagating parts, thereby reducing established populations and preventing
reproduction and spread as required by Minnesota Statutes, Section 18.78. Additionally, transportation, propagation, or sale of these plants is prohibited.
Restricted Noxious Weeds
Restricted noxious weeds are plants that are widely distributed in Minnesota and are detrimental to human or animal health, the environment, public roads, crops, livestock or
other property, but whose only feasible means of control is to prevent their spread by prohibiting the importation, sale, and transportation of their propagating parts in the
state except as allowed by Minnesota Statutes, Section 18.82. Plants designated as Restricted Noxious Weeds may be reclassified if efhective means of control are developed.
Specially Regulated Plants
Specially regulated plants are plants that may be native species or have demonstrated economic value, but also have the potential to cause harm in non-controlled environ-
ments. Plants designated as specially regulated have been determined to pose ecological, economical, or human or animal health concerns. Plant specific management plans
and or rules that define the use and management requirements for these plants will be developed by the Minnesota Department of Agriculture for each plant designated as
specially regulated. Measures must also be taken to minimize the potential for harm caused by these plants.
Japanese barberry: Japanese barberry cultivars that average greater than 600 seeds per plant will begin a three-year phase-out period in Minnesota
starting January 1, 2015. At the end of the phase-out period (December 31, 2017), the listed species and cultivars will become Restricted Noxious Weeds in Minnesota
and will be illegal to sell and propagate. Specific Japanese barberry cultivars are listed on page 30 of this document.
Knotweeds, giant and Japanese: Any person, corporation, business or other retail entity distributing Japanese and/or giant knotweeds for sale within the state, must
have information directly affixed to the plant or container packaging that it is being sold with, indicating that it is unadvisable to plant this species within 100 feet of a
water body or its designated flood plain as defined by Minnesota Statute 103F.111, Subdivision 4.
Poison ivy: Must be eradicated or controlled for public safety along rights-of-ways, trails, public accesses, business properties open to the public or on parts of lands
where public access for business or commerce is granted. Must also be eradicated or controlled along property borders when requested by adjoining landowners.
Back to Index Page
Page 57 5/28/2015 Back to Index Page
Terrestrial noxious weeds listed in this book
(see index on page 2) are found on the list
developed by:
Minnesota Noxious Weed Advisory Committee
up to and including
2015 Commissioner’s Order for Noxious Weed Listing
and Approval from Minnesota Department of Agriculture.
Nonnative and native species indexed on page 3
comprise terrestrial plants
often mistaken for the associated noxious weed.
MnDOT has reproduced the images in this Weed Guide with permission from the individuals identified as copyright owners. You may use the
images individually or the entire compilation without permission for purposes listed as “fair use” under the copyright law. Any other use may
require the photographers’ permission. In addition to obtaining photographers’ permission, a reproduction of the compilation must
acknowledge MnDOT as a contributing organization.
Minnesota Noxious Weeds
http://www.dot.state.mn.us/roadsides/vegetation/pdf/noxiousweeds.pdf
Reference herein to any specific commercial products, process, or service by tradename, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise,
does not constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by MnDOT and the State of Minnesota.
Page 58 5/28/2015
Minnesota Noxious Weeds
http://www.dot.state.mn.us/roadsides/vegetation/pdf/noxiousweeds.pdf
Based on the list developed by:
Minnesota Noxious Weed Advisory Committee
up to and including
2015 Commissioner’s Order for Noxious Weed Listing
and Approval from Minnesota Department of Agriculture.
Prepared by:
Minnesota Department of Transportation,
395 John Ireland Boulevard,
Saint Paul, Minnesota, 55155-1899
Office of Environmental Stewardship,
Roadside Vegetation Management Unit.
Compiled by: Dave Hanson
Phone: 651-366-3632
e-mail: David.L.Hanson@state.mn.us
Edited by: Ken Graeve, MnDOT
and Tina Markeson, MnDOT
April, 2015
Back to Index Page
Getting Started with Bluebirds
Over the years, land has been cleared for housing and commercial developments, highways and agriculture, and many
old trees have been cut down. Wooden fence posts that provided nesting cavities have been replaced with metal posts.
With modernization, the supply of natural nesting cavities for bluebirds and other native cavity nesters has been greatly
reduced.
Habitat loss was compounded by the introduction into North America of two
imported species—the European Starling and the House Sparrow (not to be
confused with sparrows that are native to North America, such as the Song
Sparrow, Tree Sparrow, etc.). Both starlings and House Sparrows are cavity
nesters. Both are very aggressive. House Sparrows are small enough to enter
any hole that a bluebird can, and will chase away or kill bluebirds. Starlings can
be excluded from entering nestboxes boxes by using the correct size entrance
hole, but will out-compete bluebirds for woodpecker holes and other natural
nesting cavities.
During the summer, bluebirds feed mainly on insects. In the winter, they
depend on wild berries. However, the supply of wild berries has decreased
over the years. The few that remain are often quickly stripped by large flocks of
starlings.
Even though bluebird populations have decreased, their future can still be promising. The most important step we can
take to help bring back the bluebird is to provide nesting sites by setting out a bluebird nestbox or starting a bluebird
trail. A bluebird trail is a series of bluebird boxes placed along a prescribed route. In areas where nestboxes have been
put up in suitable habitat, bluebird populations are increasing. Bluebirding is a great hands-on environmental project
that people of all ages can enjoy. By following the instructions below, chances are good that you will be able to attract
and enjoy bluebirds.
THE BLUEBIRD NESTBOX
A good bluebird box should be well ventilated, watertight, and have drainage holes. •
It should be easy to open, monitor, and easy to clean.
Solid, untreated wood is an ideal material, although exterior grade plywood can be •
used. The outside of boxes can be painted or stained if a light color is used.
A bluebird box should not have a perch. Predatory House Sparrows and House •
Wrens are attracted to perches.
Nestboxes for Eastern Bluebirds should have a round entrance hole measuring 1½" •
to 19/16" in diameter, or a 1⅜" x 2¼" vertical oval hole, or a 1⅛" to 13/16" horizontal
slot entrance. Western and Mountain Bluebirds use a 19/16" round opening or 13/16"
slot entrance. Because there are no undesirable species that can access 19/16" holes
that cannot also access 1½" holes, some monitors in Eastern Bluebird territory use 19/16" holes.
Although bluebirds seem to prefer oval holes, smaller European Starlings may be able to enter them, especially •
if they are not exactly 1⅜" x 2¼". Nestboxes that are on the small to moderate side reduce the possibility of
starling use.
Bluebird nestboxes are available from NABS and most bluebird organizations, or from commercial sources. Plans •
for building nestboxes are also available. Please see the NABS factsheet, Nestbox Specifications (also online at
www.nabluebirdsociety.org/bluebirdfacts.htm).Dave KinneerNABS Factsheet
MOUNTING THE BLUEBIRD BOX
Smooth round pipe is probably the best and simplest mounting •
system to use — ½" or 1" electrical conduit works well, but any
smooth scrap round pipe will also work. A fencepost driver,
available at hardware stores, is an excellent tool for driving conduit
into the ground.
Avoid mounting bluebird boxes on a fenceline or on trees where •
climbing mammals or snakes are present.
Periodically coating the pole with wax or food-grade grease will •
help to keep climbing predators away from the box.
Hardware cloth, or a wobbling stovepipe (Kingston) or PVC baffle •
placed on the pole directly underneath the box helps prevent
access by climbing predators, including snakes (see examples at
right).
Refer to the NABS factsheet on Predator Control (www.nabluebirdsociety.org/bluebirdfacts.htm) for more information.
SETTING UP A BLUEBIRD TRAIL
Habitat is the key factor to consider when setting up a bluebird •
trail. Open rural country with scattered trees and low or sparse
ground cover is best. Suitable habitat should include a fence line,
wires, tree branches, or other sites where bluebirds can perch to
search for food. If bluebirds do not like the habitat, they probably
will not use your nestboxes.
Open pastureland, parks away from human traffic, and mowed •
areas such as cemeteries and golf courses are all good locations
for a bluebird trail.
Avoid areas of heavy pesticide use.•
Mount nestboxes at least 50–200 feet away from brushy and •
heavily wooded areas—this is the habitat of the House Wren, a
native species that may destroy bluebird eggs and/or compete
with bluebirds for nestboxes.
Avoid areas where the House Sparrow is abundant, such as •
farmsteads and feedlots, or where people feed cheap birdseed
containing millet and cracked corn. House Sparrows are vicious
competitors. People who successfully raise bluebirds (and other
native secondary cavity nesters) in House Sparrow territory
generally trap and euthanize House Sparrows that invade
nestboxes, but this may be too late to save young or adult
bluebirds from House Sparrow attack.
For convenience, mount nestboxes so the entrance hole •
is approximately five feet (eye level) above the ground.
Alternatively, a large hook can be installed on nestboxes, which
can then be hung in trees by using a long pole. The Southern California Bluebird Club has had good success with
this method; they are an excellent source of information.
Face the nestbox away from prevailing winds, and if possible, face it toward a tree or shrub that is within 100 •
feet of the box to provide a landing spot for the young bluebirds when they first leave the box. This will keep
them off the ground, away from predators.
Nesting density for all three species of bluebirds is dependent on many factors. These factors include population •
density, habitat suitability, food supply, individual tolerance levels, visibility between boxes, the number of
cavities available, weather, and the level of competition from other species (especially Tree Swallows or, in the
West, Violet-green Swallows). It is therefore difficult to predetermine the optimal spacing for any given area. The Susan TartaglinoConnecticut Dept. of Energy & Environmental ProtectionLuc ViatourMale House
Sparrow
following distances are given as general guidelines only; contact your local bluebird affiliate organization to find
out what they recommend, and experiment by adjusting the distances between your own boxes until you have
established ideal spacing for your particular location. In many cases, bluebirds have been observed nesting closer
than the distances recommended. However, it is better to start a bluebird trail with boxes placed too far apart
than too close together.
Western Bluebirds — 100 yards apart — 200-300 yards may be better
Eastern Bluebirds — 100 yards minimum — 125 to 150 yards apart may be better
Mountain Bluebirds — 200 to 300 yards apart
Nestboxes can be mounted in pairs in areas where Tree Swallows •
are abundant. When paired, boxes should be mounted 5 to 15
feet apart. This provides nesting sites for both species and helps
to prevent competition between them. Different species of native
birds usually do not mind nesting close to each other.
Although bluebirds generally prefer rural areas, they will nest in •
golf courses, cemetaries, and along the outer edges of cities or in
small towns.
MONITORING A BLUEBIRD TRAIL
Note: For more detailed information on this topic, refer to the
NABS factsheet Monitoring Bluebird Nestboxes (available online at
www.nabluebirdsociety.org/bluebirdfacts.htm).
Please do not put up a bluebird nestbox if you do not plan to monitor
it. Check your bluebird boxes at least once or twice a week during the
nesting season, until chicks are close to fledging.
Do not open the box after nestlings are 12–13 days old. Doing so could result in the nestlings leaving the box before they
are able to fly, greatly reducing their chance of survival.
Do not allow House Sparrows to use nestboxes. House Sparrows are a non-native, nuisance species that will kill adult and
nestling bluebirds and destroy eggs. Like starlings, they are not protected by federal law. For more information, see the
NABS factsheet House Sparrow Control (www.nabluebirdsociety.org/bluebirdfacts.htm).
Any other native bird that uses your nestbox (e.g., chickadees, titmice, nuthatches, Tree or Violet-green Swallows) should
be welcomed, as these small cavity nesters need help, too. It is also illegal to disturb an active nest of a native bird
without a permit.
Bluebirds usually begin to nest in late March or early April, depending
on weather conditions. In southern states, where bluebirds reside
year round, nesting may occur even earlier.
Have your bluebird boxes in place by early spring when the bluebirds
are looking for nesting sites. Boxes may also be put up later in the
nesting season. In areas where bluebirds are present year round, they
may use nestboxes for roosting on cold nights.
Bluebirds usually have two broods per season, but three or even four
broods are possible, especially in warmer climates.
Learn to recognize a bluebird nest. It is a cup-shaped nest that is
usually made entirely of woven grass or pine needles.Dave KinneerVirginia State Parks
The North American Bluebird Society, Inc. is a non-profit education, conservation, and research organization
that promotes the recovery of bluebirds and other native cavity-nesting bird species in North America.
www.nabluebirdsociety.org
Bluebirds usually lay 4 or 5 light blue eggs, but may lay as many as 6
or 7. About 4–5% of bluebirds lay white eggs.
The typical incubation period for bluebird eggs is 12–14 days. A rule
of thumb for Eastern Bluebirds is that eggs will hatch 17 days after
the first egg is laid.
Nestlings remain in the nest 17–21 days before they fledge.
Remove bluebird nests and those of other birds as soon as the
young birds have fledged. Brushing out the box and scraping off the
guano is all that is necessary.
Keep records of the activity on your bluebird trail. This information is
valuable to organizations like the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology,
which compiles data on bluebird populations in North America.
Many NABS Affiliates also keep records of trail activity.
Don’t be discouraged if your nestboxes are not used right away.
If bluebirds are not common in your area, it may take them a
few seasons to find your new box. Bluebirds generally return to
the same area each year. Bluebird trails have been an extremely
effective method of reestablishing the bluebird populations across North America.
Revised May 2012 Flickr Creative Commons/mctheriot